URBANISATION
Urbanisation is the movement of people from rural to urban areas, and the result is the growth of cities. It is also a process by which rural areas are transformed into urban areas. Urbanisation is a process that has occurred or is occurring in nearly every part of the world that humans have inhabited. People move into cities to seek economic opportunities. Urbanisation is measured by the percentage of people who are urban in a society, a region or the world. Urbanisation, therefore, summarises the relationship between the total population and its urban component. That is, it is mostly used as a demographic indicator or in the demographic sense, whereby there is an increase in the urban population to the total population over a period of time.
The concept of urbanisation has a dual meaning: demographically and sociologically. The demographic meaning refers to the increasing proportion of the population in a country or a region that resides in cities. Sociologically, it refers to the behaviour, institutions and materialistic things that are identified as urban in origin and use. In other words, it is a social process which is the cause and consequence of a change in a person’s way of life in the urban milieu.
In the urban areas, one can find a range of features like the loss of primary relationship and increasing secondary group relationship, voluntary associations, plurality of norms and values, weaker social control, increasing secularisation and segmentary roles, a greater division of labour, greater importance of the mass media and the tendency for the urbanites to treat each other instrumentally. Sociologists believe that all these are caused by a large population, which is heterogeneous, having come from various backgrounds. Thus, the denser, larger and more heterogeneous the community, the more accentuated are the characteristics associated with the urban way of life. Another aspect is that in the social world, institutions and practices may be accepted and continued for reasons other than those that originally brought them into existence and that accordingly the urban mode of life may be perpetuated under conditions quite foreign to those necessary for its origin.
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF URBANIZATION
1. John Palen in demographic terms defines Urbanization as ‘an increase in population concentration; organizationally it is an alteration in structure and functions.’
2. Eldridge substantiates this view. According to him, urbanization involves two elements such as the multiplication of points of concentration and the increase in the size of individual concentration.
3. Thompson Warren in Encyclopedia of Social Sciences states ‘Urbanization is the movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities, generally large whose activities are primarily concerned with the government, trade, manufacture or allied interests.’
4. According to the definition of ‘Vidal de la Blache’, A city is the social organization of much greater scope, it is the expression of a stage of civilization which certain localities have not achieved and which they may perhaps never themselves attain.”
5. As per ‘Burgel’, “The Transformation process of rural area in to an urban area is known as Urbanization. This process have immense impact on Rural Economic Structure.”
6. According to ‘Bogue’, “About 70.00% of the increase in city dwellers come from reproductive change (Natural increase) and about 30.00% from Rural-Urban Migration.”
7. According to Anderson, ‘Urbanization is not a one-way process, but it is a two-way process. It involves not only movement from villages to cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession, but it involves change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavior pattern.’
From the above definitions, one can conclude that sociologists meant urbanisation as a process of diffusion of certain modernising traits or characteristics in a population. It is often considered to be a causal factor of modernisation. Thus, urbanisation can be summarised as a process which reveals itself through temporal, spatial and sectoral changes in demographic, social, economic, technological and environmental aspects of life in a given society.
SOME OTHER TERMS RELATED TO URBANIZATION
1. Urbanism: Urbanism is the way of living or the characteristics of the lifestyle of people living in urban areas. Urbanisation and Urbanism are used as synonyms, but they are different terms. Urbanisation is a process of development of urban areas, while Urbanism is the way of living of the inhabitants of an urban area. That influenced by not only sociological and psychological dimensions but also from educational, technological, industrial, historic, philosophical, legal, military, political, scientific and other dimensions.
2. Urban Population: Urban Population refers to the population living in urban areas. Areas that come under the definition of “Urban Area”.
3. Urban Agglomeration: As per Census of India 2001, “A town with its outgrowth (it may be viable unit like a village or hamlet etc.) is treated as an integrated urban area and is designated as an urban agglomeration.” The Agglomeration Constitutes:
i. A city/a Town with a continuous outgrowth, the outgrowth being outside the statutory limits but falling within the boundaries of the adjoining village or villages.
ii. Two or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths, if any.
iii. A city and one or more adjoining towns with or without outgrowths all of which form a continuous spread.
URBANIZATION IN INDIA
India is largely a rural country, with about 72 per cent of its population living in rural villages. The growth of the urban population, as well as the pace of urbanisation, has been generally slow in India compared to other Asian countries. The urban population rose from 17.3 per cent in 1951 to a mere 28 per cent in 2001 (provisional). An analysis of the growth rate of urban population in India in 1981-91 indicates that 58 per cent of this growth was due to natural increase (births minus deaths) and 42 per cent due to rural-urban migration. It may be understood that though urban population in India may be only 28 per cent, this seemingly low percentage is a large population, number-wise. Therefore, the quality of life in urban areas affects the lives of a large number of people. Therefore, this population group requires urgent consideration.
The classification of an area as an urban unit in the Census of India 2001 is based on the following definitions:
1. All places are declared by the state government under a statute as a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified (own area committee, etc).
2. All other places that simultaneously satisfy or are expected to satisfy the following criteria:
i. A minimum population of 5,000.
ii. At least 75 per cent of the male working population engaged in non-agricultural economic pursuits.
iii. A density of population of at least 400 per square kilometre (1009 per square mile).
Cities are at the forefront of socioeconomic development in India at the present time. They are the focal point of a government’s revenue earnings nowadays. More than half of the gross national product comes from the urban areas, especially the metropolitan cities, where service industries, including the BPO companies, are making huge profits. Urbanisation is also inducing and promoting the modernisation of agriculture, which is affecting the lives of each and every Indian.
Urbanisation was earlier seen as the best way to modernise, as it is the transfer of population from the hinterlands to urban centres that stimulates the needs and provides the conditions needed for the take-off of any economic activity. According to Lerner, cities are considered places that produce the machine tools of modernisation. But today, it is clear that uncontrolled urban growth may prevent steady progress. Cities are no longer seen as the centres of change and progress but the centres of crisis (Evers). Great cities have always had the power to intensify the triumphs and tragedies of human existence.
Thus, the world’s demographic, environmental and social problems are most evident in urban places, especially in the cities belonging to poor countries. The cities have grown so rapidly that the problems outweigh the benefits of industrialisation and modernisation. The most common urban problem is the increasing population, which is the cause for housing problems, environmental pollution and urban conflict.
Urbanisation is a dynamic process which transforms rural areas into urban ones and gives impetus for growth to other existing urban areas. Urbanisation brings with it a whole gamut of social progress. It is a long-term and continuous process. Urbanisation is a complex phenomenon and nearly all societies, nations, states and regions go through it. It is the process of becoming urban or to be making them urban. In a real sense, the increase in the ratio of urban population is called urbanisation.
Urban Growth:
Urban growth is intricately linked to the process of urbanisation, which is both a behavioural, structural, and demographic process through which villages transform into towns and towns evolve into cities. It serves as both an indicator and a manifestation of economic development and social change. Hauser and Duncan define urbanisation as a shift in the pattern of population distribution. This involves an increase in urban populations, alongside the expansion of urban places in both size and number, with an ever-growing concentration of people in these areas.
Smails views urban places as specific man-made landscapes that must possess particular characteristics, such as permanent fixed clusters and a comparatively high standard of living. These places typically display some division of labour, with specialised tasks including a range of secondary and tertiary services such as trade, manufacturing, and services, as opposed to being solely engaged in primary sectors like agriculture, fishing, or hunting.
Recent decades have shown a dualistic pattern in urban growth. Industrialisation and infrastructural investments have attracted people to urban areas. However, rapid urban growth has also been experienced in smaller towns and backward districts, particularly in economically underdeveloped regions. A significant factor in this is rural-urban migration driven by push factors, such as the lack of diversification in the agrarian economy of these regions.
Urban population growth was sluggish from 1901 to 1931. However, after 1931, the growth rate accelerated, particularly between 1931 and 1961. The period between 1951 and 1961 saw a slower growth rate, largely due to changes in the definition of urban areas. Nevertheless, the decade of 1961-71 saw a significant growth rate of 37.8%.
Urban society is characterised by larger, denser, and more permanent settlements, with a majority of the population engaged in non-agricultural occupations. The development of such urban societies is heavily influenced by socio-cultural organisation, climate, topography, and economic factors. Early cities, such as those of the Indus Valley (Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa), the Tigris-Euphrates region (Lagash, Ur, Uruk), the Nile (Memphis, Thebes), and the Huang He (Chen-Chan, An Yang), were typically located near river valleys. These settlements evolved with advancements in technology and human needs, with trade, commerce, and settled agriculture playing key roles in their development. Even today, these factors continue to drive the growth of cities, which are seen as hubs for markets, governance, religion, and culture.
1. Concentric Zone
Ernest Burgess proposed the Concentric Zone Theory to explain the structure and growth of cities, suggesting that cities expand outward in concentric zones. The central idea of this theory is that as a city grows, it radiates outward from its core, forming distinct concentric circles or zones. Burgess created a framework in which both the physical land use patterns and human relationships are key components. Using Chicago as an example, he argued that as cities expand, the interactions among people and their economic, social, and political organisations lead to a radial expansion, resulting in a series of concentric zones.
The model is built on the concepts of invasion and succession. Invasion refers to the continuous expansion of inner zones into outer zones, driven by the natural influx of migrants into the city. Succession occurs when a particular area becomes dominated by the activities of the invading population. In cities, there is competition for limited space, and only those who can afford the best locations for their businesses and homes are able to succeed. Thus, the concentric zone theory highlights the ongoing conflict between city dwellers and peripheral villages. It also describes the concentration and segregation of social groups as the city structure grows.
According to Burgess, there are five primary concentric zones:
Concentric Zone
i. Commercial Centre (Central Business District - CBD): This is the innermost zone and serves as the heart of the city, characterised by intense commercial, social, and civic activities. It includes department stores, office buildings, banks, clubs, hotels, and theatres. The CBD attracts a large number of people and is highly accessible from all directions. Land in this area is in high demand, leading to high rents and minimal residential population. People generally seek cheaper, more spacious accommodation away from the city core, contributing to the emptying of the CBD on weekends or non-working days. The morphological structure of the CBD is constantly evolving through demolition and reconstruction, with land use becoming more intensive over time.
ii. Zone of Transition: This zone is typically occupied by light industries and slums and is often home to first-generation immigrants. It features low-income households, deteriorating neighbourhoods, and poorly maintained housing. The area suffers from issues like crime, gambling, and other social vices, and the physical and social decay leads to problems such as juvenile delinquency, family breakdown, and mental health issues. In this zone, there is a constant process of change, with the CBD expanding outward and overtaking it over time.
iii. Working-Class Residence: This area is typically planned for residential purposes and is located near areas of economic activity, often influenced by the nearby transition zone. It is affected by industrial pollution and the cultural impact of slums. The housing in this zone is generally of a lower quality but offers all the essential amenities of urban life, such as sanitation, health facilities, and good transportation. This zone is home to native-born individuals and families living in single-family houses or apartments.
iv. Middle and Higher-Class Residence: These areas are often located further outward and feature larger, more expensive homes. The residents of these zones are typically better off and have access to higher-quality amenities, such as well-maintained roads, parks, and schools. The quality of life in these zones is higher compared to the inner zones, with low levels of industrial pollution and a greater emphasis on recreational and cultural activities.
v. Commuter Zone: This is the outermost zone, which includes small cities, towns, and hamlets. People living in these areas commute daily to the CBD for work or business but live in quieter, more rural environments. The commuter zone is characterised by low population density and is often located in suburbs or satellite towns. Burgess later suggested that Chicago’s commuter zone did not form a perfect circle but instead developed along railway lines, much like spokes on a wheel.
Burgess’s Concentric Zone Theory was one of the first comprehensive analyses of urban structure, and it offered a significant contribution to understanding the internal dynamics of cities. In the 1920s, urban populations were growing rapidly, especially in the United States and Europe, and this theory provided a framework to understand the changes occurring in urban communities.
However, the theory has limitations. It is based on the structure of Chicago and North American cities and may not be applicable to the cities in developing countries. The model does not fully account for the role of transport and topographical features that can distort the pattern of urban growth. Furthermore, Burgess’s emphasis on invasion and succession as key drivers of urban growth overlooks the influence of endogenous forces, such as local economic and social factors. Homer Hoyt refuted the concentric model, arguing that urban growth does not always follow a circular pattern and is often influenced by factors like transport routes and geographical features.
2. Sectors Model
In 1939, Homer Hoyt, an economist, proposed an alternative model of urban structure and growth known as the Sector Model, aimed at addressing the weaknesses of the Concentric Zone Theory. Hoyt’s model was primarily based on residential rent patterns and the impacts of transportation development. He observed through an empirical study of 34 American cities that high-rent areas were often located in distinct sectors of the city, rather than in concentric rings as suggested by Burgess. Hoyt mapped how rent varied by sectors, showing that it did not follow a simple circular pattern but instead changed based on the direction of the city’s expansion.
Hoyt further supported his theory with factual evidence from a 1954 survey of the Washington D.C. metropolitan area. His research extended beyond North American cities, also including evidence from Latin American cities such as Guatemala City, Bogotá, Lima, La Paz, Quito, Santiago, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Caracas. He found that the most prestigious single-family homes and apartments were located on one side of the city, with high-income groups clustering in scattered sectors rather than being confined to concentric rings.
Sector Model
Both Hoyt’s Sector Model and Burgess’s Concentric Zone Theory share the common concept of a Central Business District (CBD) and outward expansion. However, the Sector Model differs by explaining that urban growth does not occur in concentric rings, but rather in radial sectors emanating outward from the CBD. This development is driven by the differential accessibility from the outer areas to the core, which creates sectors of different land uses and characteristics.
In Hoyt’s model, land rents and land uses change from sector to sector, rather than from ring to ring. Factors such as transportation, urban planning, the class character of residents, and the availability of other facilities within a particular sector all influence the development of these sectors. Within residential sectors, for instance, older houses tend to be concentrated in the inner portions of the sector, with newer, more modern constructions on the outer fringes.
Hoyt’s theory challenges the simplicity of the concentric ring model by recognising that growth patterns in cities are more complex, shaped by accessibility and other socio-economic factors. It provides a more nuanced understanding of urban development, especially in terms of residential distribution and the varying impacts of transportation infrastructure.
3. Multiple Nuclei
The Multiple Nuclei Model, developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward L. Ullman in 1954, is the third classical theory of urban structure. The basic assumption of this theory is that cities are not homocentric but instead have many minicentres that play significant roles in the development of a city. These minicentres originally developed independently, each offering specialised advantages or clustering similar activities in particular areas.
The Multiple Nuclei Theory differs from earlier theories like the Sectors and Concentric Zone models. Instead of a city developing around a single centre or CBD, it suggests that a city evolves around a group of many minicentres. The development of these centres can occur simultaneously or in different periods. The model identifies ten major areas within the city: central business, wholesale or light manufacturing, low-income residential, medium-income residential, high-income residential, heavy industry, outlying business, residential suburb, industrial suburb, and commuter areas. These areas, when analysed through the lens of social organisation, reveal that the city has developed through a natural, rather than a planned, process.
Multiple Nuclei
4. Exploitative Model
The Exploitative Model divides the city into three semi-circular concentric zones based on the ownership of resources and the ability to pay, illustrating how wealth flows from the inner city to the outer, more affluent zones. The model highlights the exploitation of inner-city residents and the stark socio-economic divides within urban areas. The three zones are:
i. The City of Death: This innermost zone is characterised by extreme poverty and exploitation. The mostly poor residents face two forms of taxation: low wages for their labour and high costs for basic necessities, such as food, housing, and services. The area also suffers from a lack of city services and civic amenities due to overcrowding and encroachment, resulting in slum-like conditions.
ii. The City of Need: This zone lies between the City of Death and the City of Superfluity and is home to the working class, similar to the working-class zone in Burgess’ concentric model. The inhabitants of this zone, described as “hard hats” and unionised workers, are exploited by suburban business interests and politicians. They pay the Machine Tax but are relieved from the Death Tax. Despite being in a better position than the inner-city residents, they still face exploitation, primarily through low wages and limited upward mobility.
iii. The City of Superfluity: This outermost zone is inhabited by the elite, including entrepreneurs, managers, and wealthy individuals. They live a leisured life, indulging in mass consumption, which is made possible by the exploitation of the inner-city zones. The population in this zone is small, but the affluent residents control the allocation of resources and hold significant power in governance, further reinforcing their position of privilege.
Exploitative Model
5. Symbolic Approach
The Symbolic Approach is another model used to study urban structures, developed as a corrective to the ecological and functional approaches. Walter Firey (1945) made significant contributions to this approach, particularly through his analysis of land uses in Central Boston. He emphasised the importance of symbolism as an ecological variable, highlighting the independent role of social symbolism in shaping the internal structure of cities. Firey focused on historically meaningful public buildings and open spaces, suggesting that these spaces are not just functional but also symbolic in their significance.
Later developments in the symbolic approach were made by Wheatley in his studies of Asian cities, specifically the Chinese Cities (1971) and Japanese Cities (1978). According to Wheatley, ancient cities developed with strong religious or cosmological meanings. The city’s location or the design of particular structures often held symbolic significance, with the city site being regarded as the “centre of the world.” The alignment of walls, gates, roads, and other designs typically reflected specific meanings within a cultural or religious context. For instance, temples, shrines, and palaces were designed by the ruling elites as centres of power. Similarly, in modern cities, skyscrapers have come to symbolise corporate activity as much as they represent places of work.
Conclusion
The five theories of city structure and growth patterns discussed above, Concentric Zone Theory, Sector Model, Multiple Nuclei Model, Exploitative Model, and the Symbolic Approach, were developed in the early twentieth century, primarily based on studies of American urban society. These theories focus on major factors influencing changes in city structure and organisation, such as population growth, technological advancements, economic expansion, and transportation development. All of these models share the assumption that as cities grow, residential areas expand outward, leading to increased population concentration in the suburbs.
The Concentric and Sector Models align in some respects with the Multiple Nuclei Model, which also explains outward growth through the concept of ‘minicentres,’ evolving over time. These models reject the overemphasis on a single commercial centre and acknowledge that urban growth is not centralised but spread across various specialised areas. They also agree on the differential residential patterns based on class, with the first three theories explicitly distinguishing between the residential areas of lower, middle, and higher classes. Similarly, the Exploitative Model uses a semi-circular pattern to describe three distinct urban areas representing different classes and levels of exploitation. These residential patterns are influenced by land value or rent but also reflect the social hierarchy and the relationships within the city, illustrating the rigid social segregation that exists in urban spaces.
The Symbolic Approach adds a layer of complexity by incorporating social symbolism into the understanding of urban structures, emphasising the importance of historically meaningful public buildings and spaces in shaping the internal layout of cities.
However, recent transformations in urban structure have altered the basic assumptions and expected outcomes of these classical models. Changes such as the impact of automobiles, post-World War II population growth, housing development, the rise of shopping facilities, and increased social and industrial mobility have significantly reshaped urban dynamics. Hoyt’s review observed that the rigidity of older city patterns has been substantially reduced by factors like increasing city size, personal income, and mobility. Brian Berry synthesises these transformations by focusing on three key aspects of research: urban population densities, the socio-economic pattern of neighbourhoods, and the changing distribution of retail and service businesses. These shifts highlight the evolving nature of city structures and the need to reconsider traditional models in light of contemporary urban realities.
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