Cyclical Thoery

CYCLICAL THEORIES

The cyclical theory of social change focuses on the rise and fall of civilisations and seeks to identify patterns of growth and decay. It focuses on the fact that civilisations have always risen and fallen. Like an organism, all civilisations have a life-like birth, maturity, old age and death. Spengler, Toynbee, Sorokin and Pareto are the major theorists of this school of thought of social change. They hold that all civilisations go through the cycles of growth and decay.

1. Oswald Spengler (1880–1936)

About the social change, the German scholar Oswald Spengler, in 1918 in his book ‘The Decline of the West’ presented his cyclic theory. In this book, he has criticised the evolutionary theories of social change and said that change never happens in a straight line. In Spengler's view, social change occurs in cycles: after roaming, we return to the same place. Just in the same way as a man takes birth, becomes young, gets older and dies again and takes birth again. This cycle is also found in human society and civilisations. Human civilisation and culture also undergo rise and fall, formation and destruction. Like the human body, they also attain birth, development and death. To support their view, they described eight civilisations of the world (Arab, Egyptian, Megan, Russian, Western, etc.) and presented their rise and fall. Spengler has said that Western culture has reached its highest stage of development. In the fields of trade and science, it has made unprecedented progress, but slowly and slowly it is reaching its stage of attenuation and stability; hence, its destruction is inevitable. He has expressed similar views on German culture, saying that it has reached its zenith and that its decline is near.

In his view, in future, the grandeur of the Western societies that they have today will diminish, and their affluence and power will be destroyed. He said that, on the other hand, the countries of Asia, which were underdeveloped, weak, and lethargic, will, with their economic and military power, move forward on the roads of progress and production. They will become a challenge for Western countries. In this way, using examples from Western and Asian societies, Spengler has specified the cyclic nature of social change.

2. Arnold J. Toynbee (1889–1975)

Arnold J. Toynbee was an English historian. He studied 21 civilisations of the world and presented his theory of social change in his book ‘A Study of History’. After studying the development of different civilisations, he found a simple example and created his theory. The theory of Toynbee is also called ‘Challenge and Response Theory of Social Change’. He says that every civilisation is given a challenge in the beginning by nature and man. To face this challenge, man requires adaptation, and to respond to this challenge, he forms civilisation and culture. After this, social challenges are presented in place of geographical ones. These challenges take the form of internal problems or are imposed by external societies. The society that successfully faces these challenges remains intact, and those that are not able to do so are destroyed. In this way, a society goes through the phases of formation and destruction, coalition and disruption.

In the Sindhu and Nile Valleys, the same thing has occurred. The natural environment posed a challenge to the people of these places, to which they responded by forming. The civilisations of the Sindhu and Egypt have developed in similar ways. The River Ganges and the Volga also posed the same challenge, but the appropriate answer was not provided by the people who lived there. Hence, the civilisations did not flourish there.

3. Pitirim Sorokin (1889–1968)

Sorokin has presented the theory of cultural dynamics of social change in his book ‘Social and Cultural Dynamics’. He has criticised theories of change advanced by Marx, Pareto and Veblen. In his view, social change in the form of up and rise, like a pendulum of a clock, occurs between one situation to another situation. He mainly explained two cultures: ideational and sensational. Every society rotates on these two spindles of culture; in other words, it moves from sensational to ideational and from ideational to sensational culture. When moving from one state to another, there is a middle state where there is a combination of sensational and ideational cultures. Sorokin calls this ideal culture. As people move through various cultures, change also occurs in society. The characteristics of these three types of cultures are briefly described here as follows:

a) Sensational culture: Sensational culture is also called as material culture. This culture is related to human senses and organs, that is, its knowledge can be gained by seeing, smelling and touching. In such a culture, greater emphasis is placed on the fulfilment of material needs and desires. Individual and collective sides are involved in sensational culture. Western society is an example of this culture.

b) Ideational Culture: This is absolutely opposite to that of sensational culture. This is related to feelings, God, religion, soul and ethics. This culture is called spiritualistic culture. In this, in place of material comfort, more importance is given to spiritual progress, enlightenment and attainment of God. All things are assumed to be God’s grace. Predominance of religion and God is found in all ideas, ideals, art, literature, philosophy and law; more stress is given on customs and traditions. In this culture, technology and science lag behind.

c) Ideal Culture: This culture is a combination of both sensational and ideational cultures; hence, the characteristics of both cultures are found in this culture. In this balanced form of religion and science, material and spiritual comfort are found. Sorokin believes this kind of culture to be excellent. Because of this, he calls this an ideal culture.

In view of Sorokin, all the cultures of the world swing in a cradle from sensational to ideational culture; every culture, after reaching its topmost position, again returns to another type of culture. As the figure shows, sensational and ideational cultures are only limits of change; most of the time, the ideal culture prevails in society. Why does this change occur in culture? Sorokin believed that the cause for this is the internal factors of natural law and culture because change is the law of nature; thus, culture also changes because of this law. In addition, the internal conditions of the culture are also responsible for its change. Sorokin has said that in the 20th century, Western civilisation reached its top-most position of sensational culture, and now it will again return to its ideational culture. Because culture has an intimate relation; hence, when change occurs in culture it also occurs in the society.

4. Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923)

Vilfredo Pareto demonstrated the cyclical theory of social change, which is called as the Theory of Circulation of Elites, in his book ‘Mind and Society’. He has explained the categorical system of social change based on the cyclical changes. In his view, we see two categories in every society: the upper or elite class and the lower class. Neither of these categories is stable, but a cyclical order of change is found in them. The lower class assimilates into the elite class by improving their qualities and efficiency. Slowly and slowly, the efficiency and capabilities of the elite class begin to decline, and they lose their qualities and become corrupt. In this way, they move towards the lower class. To fill the vacant place in the upper or elite class, people in the lower class move upward who are intelligent, principled, efficient, capable, and courageous. In this way, the process of moving from the upper class to the lower class and from the lower class to the upper class continues. Because of this cyclical rate, change can occur in the social structure. Because this change occurs in the cyclical rate, this is called the ‘cyclical’ or ‘theory of circulation of elites’ of social change. Pareto has explained the cycle of social change in political, economic, and ideological fields.

In the political field, we are able to see two types of people: tigers and foxes. The ‘tiger’ people have strong faith in ideological goals and seek support from power to achieve them. ‘Tiger’ people are those who are in power. Because ‘tiger’ people use power; hence, a serious reaction can take place in society, thus they take the support of diplomacy and transform themselves from tiger to ‘foxes’ and like foxes, they cunningly rule the governance and exist in power, but some foxes are also present in the lower class, those who are in search of this power. A time comes when the power from the foxes of the upper class comes into the hands of the foxes of the lower class. In such a state, a change in power also affects the political system and organisation. In view of Pareto, in all societies, power is used more than logic for governance. When there is a weakness in the desire and power to use force in governing people, then, in place of power, they cunningly get their work done like foxes. The foxes of the governing class are more cunning; hence, they grab the power from the upper class. Hence, when administrators and power change, society also changes.

In the field of economics, Pareto has identified two classes: Speculators and Rentiers. The people of the first class do not have a fixed income; sometimes it is less, sometimes more. The people of this class earn wealth by their intelligence. Conversely, the income of the other class is definite. The people of the first class are inventors, industrialists, and skilled businessmen, but they use power and cunning to protect their interests and adopt corrupt practices. Because of this, they are ruined, and the people of the second class occupy their place, those who are honest. Along with change in this class, change also occurs in the economy of the society.

In the ideological field as well, two types of people are found: trustworthy and mistrustful. Sometimes there is a predominance of trustworthy people in society, but when they are stereotyped, they decline, and their place is taken by people from another class.