Types of Hindu Marriage

Hindu Marriage

The Hindu view of marriage is that it is for fulfilling dharma and the need for pleasure (Kama). It is considered a sacrament. There are several reasons for considering the Hindus marriage a sacrament.

1. Dharma (fulfillment of religious duties) is the most important aim of marriage.

2. Performance of religious ceremonies, including certain rites like kanyadan, panigrahana, saptapadi, etc., which are based on certain sacred formulae.

3. The rites are performed before Agni ( the most sacred god) by reciting mantras (passage) from Vedas (the most sacred scriptures) by a Brahmin.

4. The union is considered in dissolvable and irrevocable and husband and wife are bound to each other not only until death, but even after death.

5. Though a man can perform several sacraments during the course of his life, a woman can perform only one sacrament in her life, i.e., marriage, hence it has great importance for her.

6. Emphasis is on chastity of a woman and the faithfulness of a man.

7. Marriage is considered a “social duty” towards the family and community and there is no idea of individual interest and aspiration.

Types of Hindu Marriage

In early Hindu society, eight modes of acquiring a wife were recognised, of which four were considered proper and desirable (dharmya), with the approval of the father/family, and four were regarded as undesirable (adharmya), without the father’s approval. The proper marriages recognised by the Smritis were Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, and Prajapatya, while the four undesirable marriages were Asura, Gandharva, Raksasa, and Paishacha.

Marriage recognised by the Smritis

1. In Brahma, marriage is settled by the parents. A Brahmin is called to preside over the marriage rites, and the daughter is given by her father to the groom along with some dowry of ornaments and clothes, etc.

2. In Daiva, the Brahmin who officiates over the ceremony is not paid any dakshina (gift) but is given a daughter, properly bejewelled and decorated.

3. In Arsha, the bride’s father gets something from the groom, say a pair of cattle or two, in exchange for his daughter. This is just for the sake of the ceremony.

4. In Prajapatya, although parental consent is essential, no ceremony is performed.

Undesirable Marriage

1. In Asura, bride-price is given by the groom to the bride’s father. This is sort of an economic contract. There is no limit on the amount given.

2. In Gandharva, neither is the consent of parents necessary nor are the rites or dowry essential. Only the will of the marrying parties is given importance. This marriage is believed to spring from desire and has sex satisfaction as its chief purpose.

3. In Raksasa, marriage is by capture or abduction without obtaining the consent of the girl or her parents. This was practised in times when group conflicts and tribal wars were very common. The victorious groups used to carry away the girls of the conquered groups and keep them as ‘keeps’.

4. In Paishacha, a woman who is seduced when asleep or unconscious or when incapable of protecting herself is given the social status of a wife. 

Of these eight forms of marriage, Brahma is considered the best, in which a girl is given to a boy of merit in the same caste or in a caste of equal status. Both the bride and the groom in this marriage are supposed to be grown-up persons competent to give consent.

In the Mahabharata age, the two most prevalent forms of marriage were Brahma and Gandharva. Gandharva marriage was declared to be proper for a Kshatriya. Many of the heroes of Mahabharata contracted this form of marriage; for instance, Arjun married Ulupi and Chitrangada, and Dushyanta married Shakuntala.

Besides the above forms of marriage, the type of marriage usually practised by the Hindus was monogamous, though some examples of polygynous marriages in early and medieval times. The only example of polyandrous marriage is found in the Mahabharta the marriage of Drupadi with five Pandavas.

Polygyny

Polygyny is marriage of one male with more than one female, or what may be called the ‘plurality of wives’. Polygynous marriage may be unrestricted or conditional. In early Hindu society, it was the second type of polygynous marriage that was practised. According to Apastamba Dharmsutra, a man could marry again after ten years of his first marriage if his wife was barren, or he could marry after thirteen or fourteen years if he had only daughters from his wife and wanted a son. Manu has said that a man can supersede his first wife after eight years of his first marriage, if his wife is barren; after ten years if children produced by his wife do not remain alive; after eleven years if his wife produces only daughters; and immediately after the first marriage if his wife is quarrelsome, rebellious, or harsh. In the Mahabharta, it is said that a man who marries twice without any rational cause commits a sin for which there is no penance. Nanda has said that a man who marries twice should not be accepted as a witness. Daftri ( 158) has said that no doubt one could marry more wives than one at one and the same time, yet monogamy generally prevailed.

Polyandry

Polyandry is marriage of one woman with many men, that is, it is a practice involving plurality of husbands. The only example of Drupadi’s marriage with five Pandavas in the Mahabharta period was justified by Yudhistra on three bases: he cited other examples in which similar marriages were performed; he cited examples of some of his ancestors who had practised polyandry; and he described it as “mother’s command” and obeying mother’s command was a son’s dharma. Vyasa, however, described Drupadi’s marriage as ‘against usage’ and as such against dharma; yet he wanted it to be accepted as preordained. In the Mahabharta itself, referring to polyandry, it is said: “To have many wives is no dharma on the part of men, but to violate the duty owed to the first husband would be a great adharma in the case of a woman.”

The sociological concept of marriage in India presents it as an institution that transitions individuals from the family of orientation to the family of procreation while ensuring social control and the gratification of needs. It explored the Indian view of marriage as a social duty dedicated to fulfilling Dharma, Artha, and Kama, specifically emphasising the Hindu concept of marriage as a holy, indissoluble religious sacrament rather than a mere contract. The text outlined the eight historical modes of acquiring a wife in early Hindu society, distinguishing between four proper and desirable forms recognised by the Smritis, such as the ideal Brahma marriage, and four undesirable forms that lacked parental approval, such as Asura and Raksasa. In addition to these eight classical forms, reference was also made to the overarching prevalence of monogamy, alongside historical and textual examples of conditional polygyny and rare instances of polyandry.

References

Ahuja, R. (2002). Indian social system. Rawat Publications. (pp. 117-124)