Functionalism: R. K. Merton

Model MCQ's Sociological Theories

1. Who is the sociologist most closely associated with the development of "functional analysis" in sociology?

(A) Talcott Parsons

(B) Karl Marx

(D) Robert K. Merton

Explanation: Robert K. Merton is well-known for his contributions to functional analysis, which examines the functions of social structures and their role in maintaining social order.

2. According to Merton, what is the "manifest function" of a social structure?

(A) The unintended, hidden consequences of social actions

(B) The intended, observable functions of social actions

(D) The conflicts and contradictions within social structures

(B) The intended, observable functions of social actions

Explanation: Manifest functions are the intended and observable outcomes or consequences of social actions or structures, which are easily recognized by society.

3. What does "latent function" refer to in Merton's functionalism?

(A) The expected and intended outcomes of social actions

(B) The unintended and hidden consequences of social actions

(D) The inherent power dynamics in social systems

(B) The unintended and hidden consequences of social actions

Explanation: Latent functions are the unintended, hidden, or less visible consequences of social actions or structures that may not be immediately recognized by society.

4. Merton introduced the concept of "role strain." What does it refer to?

(A) The stress caused by conflicting expectations from different roles

(B) The pressure to conform to social norms

(D) The division of labor within society

(A) The stress caused by conflicting expectations from different roles

Explanation: Role strain occurs when an individual faces conflicting demands and expectations from different roles, creating stress and difficulty in fulfilling those roles.

5. Which of the following is a major contribution of Robert K. Merton to functionalism?

(A) The concept of "class conflict" as a driving force in society

(B) The distinction between "manifest" and "latent" functions

(D) The development of symbolic interactionism

(B) The distinction between "manifest" and "latent" functions

Explanation: Merton's major contribution to functionalism is the distinction between manifest and latent functions, which helps in understanding both the intended and unintended outcomes of social structures.

6. According to Merton, what does "dysfunction" refer to in society?

(A) The conflict between different social groups

(B) The breakdown or disruption of social norms and values

(D) The adaptation of society to external changes

Explanation: Merton used the term "dysfunction" to refer to the negative or undesirable consequences of a social structure that disrupt the stability of society.

7. Merton’s theory of "middle-range theory" suggests that sociological theories should:

(A) Focus only on the large-scale institutions

(B) Be abstract and highly generalized

(D) Ignore specific case studies and focus on universal laws

Explanation: Merton proposed middle-range theories as an approach that bridges abstract grand theories and empirical research by focusing on specific, testable social phenomena.

8. According to Merton, what is the relationship between social structure and individual behavior?

(A) Social structures always determine individual behavior

(B) Individuals create their own social structures

(D) Social structure has no impact on individual behavior

Explanation: Merton believed that social structures shape behavior by providing a framework, but individuals still exercise autonomy and can choose how to respond to those structures.

9. Merton’s concept of "strain theory" focuses on which of the following?

(A) The ways in which social structures cause individual deviance

(B) The positive functions of social norms

(D) The role of culture in shaping behavior

(A) The ways in which social structures cause individual deviance

Explanation: Merton’s strain theory suggests that society sets cultural goals and socially approved means to achieve them, but when individuals are unable to achieve these goals through approved means, they may resort to deviance.

10. According to Merton, which of the following is an example of a "ritualist" in society?

(A) An individual who completely rejects societal goals

(B) An individual who accepts societal goals but rejects the means to achieve them

(D) An individual who seeks new ways to achieve societal goals

Explanation: A "ritualist" in Merton’s strain theory is someone who has abandoned the societal goals but still strictly adheres to the approved means, even though those means no longer lead to the original societal goals.

11. Merton’s “Postulates of Functional Analysis” include the idea that:

(A) Every social institution is indispensable for society

(B) All parts of society function in perfect unity

(D) Social institutions always serve the same functions across societies

Explanation: Merton argued that some institutions might fulfil multiple functions, some may serve no clear function, and that functional alternatives may exist — thus challenging earlier assumptions of automatic indispensability and unity. :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1}

12. Which concept did Merton introduce to explain unintended consequences that harm society?

(A) Manifest dysfunction

(B) Latent function

(D) Manifest function

Explanation: Merton distinguishes between manifest and latent functions and also highlights that latent consequences can be dysfunctional — "latent dysfunctions" — unintended and harmful consequences of social actions. :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2}

13. According to Merton, which of the following is an example of a latent function of education?

(A) Preparing students for careers

(B) Teaching literacy and numeracy

(D) Sorting people into job categories

Explanation: While manifest functions of education include preparing students for careers, latent functions include less‐intended outcomes such as forming social networks which weren’t the primary aim but result from the institution. :contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3}

14. In Merton’s view, the concept of functional alternative refers to:

(A) Only one institution can perform a specific societal function

(B) All institutions must perform exactly the same function

(D) Institutions never change their functions over time

Explanation: Merton argued that there could be functional alternatives — i.e., different structures/institutions could fulfil the same societal function, which undermines the notion of indispensability of one specific institution. :contentReference[oaicite:4]{index=4}

15. Merton criticised the classical functionalist assumption of “functional unity” meaning:

(A) Every part of society works peacefully together

(B) Every part of society has the same goals

(D) Each part of society may not always support each other or have harmony

Explanation: Merton pointed out that not all elements of society are functionally unified; some social structures might be dysfunctional or only benefit certain groups, and conflict and tension may exist. :contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5}

16. Which book by Merton is considered a landmark work for his functionalist theory?

(A) The Division of Labour in Society

(B) Social Theory and Social Structure

(D) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

(B) Social Theory and Social Structure

Explanation: Merton’s book *Social Theory and Social Structure* (first published 1949; revised 1957, 1968) introduced his key functionalist concepts such as manifest vs latent functions, dysfunctions, and middle‐range theory. :contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6}

17. The distinction between manifest and latent functions helps sociologists to:

(A) Only focus on intended outcomes of social actions

(B) Ignore unintended outcomes of social institutions

(D) Focus solely on social institutions’ beneficial parts

Explanation: Merton’s analytic distinction requires looking beyond the explicit purpose of social actions/institutions (manifest) to uncover hidden/unintended effects (latent), thus giving a fuller understanding of social functioning. :contentReference[oaicite:7]{index=7}

18. In Merton’s paradigm, dysfunctions are defined as:

(A) Positive, intended consequences of a social structure

(B) Negative or destabilizing consequences of a social structure

(D) Intended, but negative consequencesShow Answer & Explanation

(B) Negative or destabilizing consequences of a social structure

Explanation: Merton viewed dysfunctions as the consequences of social structure or action that undermine or weaken the stability of the social system. :contentReference[oaicite:8]{index=8}

19. Merton’s idea of “middle‐range theory” suggests what about sociological theory building?

(A) Theories should aim for broad universal claims covering all of society

(B) Theories should focus on discrete empirical phenomena which can be tested

(D) Theories should avoid specificity and remain highly abstractShow Answer & Explanation

(B) Theories should focus on discrete empirical phenomena which can be tested

Explanation: Merton proposed middle‐range theories to bridge the gap between grand abstract theory and empirical data — focusing on concrete phenomena that can be empirically investigated. :contentReference[oaicite:9]{index=9}

20. According to Merton, which of the following would be not necessarily true of all social institutions?

(A) They serve a useful function for society

(B) They may have dysfunctions as well as functions

(D) They always have only one functionShow Answer & Explanation

(D) They always have only one function

Explanation: Merton argued against the assumption that each institution has only one function; rather institutions may perform multiple functions, may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others, or might offer alternatives. :contentReference[oaicite:10]{index=10}

21. What is the central theme of Merton's "strain theory"?

(A) Social structures always lead to social change

(B) Societal norms encourage individuals to conform

(D) Social institutions function to maintain inequality

Explanation: Merton's strain theory suggests that society sets culturally approved goals and socially acceptable means to achieve them. When individuals cannot achieve these goals through legitimate means, they experience strain and may turn to deviant behavior.

22. Which of the following is an example of a "ritualist" according to Merton’s strain theory?

(A) An individual who rejects societal goals but still follows societal rules

(B) An individual who abandons societal norms

(D) An individual who challenges societal structures and norms

(A) An individual who rejects societal goals but still follows societal rules

Explanation: In Merton's strain theory, a ritualist is someone who has abandoned the pursuit of societal goals, such as success or wealth, but still rigidly follows the prescribed means or rules, even though they no longer lead to the original goals.

23. Merton's theory of functionalism suggests that social structures:

(A) Always lead to positive outcomes for society

(B) May have both positive and negative consequences for society

(D) Are inherently oppressive

(B) May have both positive and negative consequences for society

Explanation: Merton argued that social structures can have both manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions, and that some of these functions can be dysfunctional, or harmful, to society.

24. According to Merton, "role conflict" occurs when:

(A) An individual faces conflicting expectations from different roles

(B) An individual rejects all societal roles

(D) An individual changes their social identity

(A) An individual faces conflicting expectations from different roles

Explanation: Role conflict occurs when an individual experiences tension or difficulty in fulfilling the demands of different roles they occupy, such as being both a parent and a professional, with conflicting demands.

25. Merton’s "functional alternatives" concept challenges the idea that:

(A) All social structures are functional

(B) All social structures are interchangeable

(D) Social change leads to disorganization

Explanation: Merton challenged the idea that each social structure or institution is indispensable. He argued that there can be alternative institutions or structures that fulfill the same function in society.

26. Which of the following is an example of manifest function of education according to Merton?

(A) Teaching students how to read and write

(B) Developing personal networks for students

(D) Reinforcing social inequalities

(A) Teaching students how to read and write

Explanation: Manifest functions are intended and observable outcomes. In the case of education, a manifest function is teaching students skills like reading and writing that are directly aligned with societal goals.

27. Which sociological theory focuses on how different parts of society work together to maintain stability and social order?

(A) Conflict theory

(B) Structural functionalism

(D) Feminist theory

(B) Structural functionalism

Explanation: Structural functionalism focuses on understanding how different parts of society (such as institutions, norms, and values) work together to maintain stability and cohesion in society.

28. Which of the following is an example of a latent dysfunction in society?

(A) The intended consequences of schooling

(B) The hidden negative consequences of the education system, such as reinforcing social inequality

(D) The process of job training

(B) The hidden negative consequences of the education system, such as reinforcing social inequality

Explanation: A latent dysfunction refers to the unintended negative consequences of a social structure, such as how the education system can perpetuate social inequalities, even though that is not its intended purpose.

29. Merton's concept of "middle-range theory" focuses on theories that:

(A) Address broad and abstract societal patterns

(B) Focus only on specific empirical observations

(D) Are purely theoretical without empirical application

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory aims to bridge the gap between highly abstract grand theories and the practical, empirical research that can be used to test those theories in specific contexts.

30. Merton's idea of "social structure" refers to:

(A) The individual behaviors in a society

(B) The economic systems that control social life

(D) The roles played by individuals in society

Explanation: Merton viewed social structure as the organized patterns of relationships and institutions, such as family, education, and religion, that shape the functioning of society.

31. According to Merton, which of the following is an example of a "rebel" in his strain theory?

(A) An individual who accepts societal goals but rejects the means to achieve them

(B) An individual who rejects societal goals and means and substitutes them with new goals

(D) An individual who conforms to societal norms and strives for success

(B) An individual who rejects societal goals and means and substitutes them with new goals

Explanation: A "rebel" in Merton's strain theory rejects both societal goals and means and actively creates new goals and methods to achieve them, challenging the existing social order.

32. Merton’s concept of "role set" refers to:

(A) The different roles an individual plays in society

(B) The expectations attached to an individual's single role

(D) The group of people an individual interacts with while performing a role

Explanation: A "role set" refers to the collection of individuals with whom an individual interacts while performing a specific role, such as a teacher interacting with students, parents, and colleagues.

33. Merton’s concept of "anomie" refers to:

(A) The breakdown of societal norms and values, leading to confusion or disorientation

(B) The conflict between social classes

(D) The positive functions of social institutions in maintaining order

(A) The breakdown of societal norms and values, leading to confusion or disorientation

Explanation: Anomie refers to a state of normlessness or confusion where societal norms and values are unclear or not functioning, leading to disorientation and deviance in individuals.

34. Merton's concept of "cultural goals" refers to:

(A) The societal expectations that individuals should achieve through approved means

(B) The personal beliefs and aspirations of individuals in society

(D) The values and norms established by social institutions

(A) The societal expectations that individuals should achieve through approved means

Explanation: Cultural goals are the societal ideals and objectives that individuals are expected to strive for, such as wealth or success, and these goals are shaped by cultural norms and values.

35. According to Merton, which of the following is an example of innovation in strain theory?

(A) An individual who abandons societal goals and creates new ones

(B) An individual who rejects traditional means of achieving goals and adopts new, unapproved methods

(D) An individual who resists the pressures of social norms

(B) An individual who rejects traditional means of achieving goals and adopts new, unapproved methods

Explanation: In Merton’s strain theory, innovation occurs when individuals accept societal goals but reject or invent new, often deviant, means to achieve those goals (e.g., engaging in criminal activity to achieve success).

36. According to Merton, which of the following would be considered "dysfunctional" in society?

(A) A social institution that has both intended and beneficial outcomes

(B) A social structure that contributes to the breakdown of social order or societal stability

(D) A social structure that encourages conformity and stability

(B) A social structure that contributes to the breakdown of social order or societal stability

Explanation: Merton’s concept of dysfunction refers to social structures or actions that have negative or destabilizing consequences for society, undermining its stability and functioning.

37. Merton’s "middle-range theory" aims to:

(A) Develop abstract, generalized theories without empirical data

(B) Bridge the gap between grand theoretical concepts and specific empirical research

(D) Develop universal laws applicable to all societies

(B) Bridge the gap between grand theoretical concepts and specific empirical research

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory seeks to bridge the divide between broad theoretical frameworks and specific empirical research, making it more practical and applicable to real-world phenomena.

38. Merton’s "functional analysis" in sociology helps explain:

(A) The way social structures are static and unchanging

(B) How society functions as a cohesive and harmonious system

(D) How individuals can change society

Explanation: Merton’s functional analysis explores both the intended (manifest) and unintended (latent) consequences of social structures, recognizing that society is not always harmonious and may contain contradictions and dysfunctions.

39. Merton’s concept of "role set" refers to:

(A) The expectations attached to a single role

(B) The network of people with whom an individual interacts in a specific role

(D) The set of goals associated with a role

(B) The network of people with whom an individual interacts in a specific role

Explanation: Merton’s "role set" refers to the collection of people with whom an individual interacts while performing a specific role. For example, a teacher's role set would include students, colleagues, and parents.

40. According to Merton, "social structure" refers to:

(A) The individual actions of people within society

(B) The pattern of relationships, norms, and institutions that make up society

(D) The rules and regulations governing society’s behavior

(B) The pattern of relationships, norms, and institutions that make up society

Explanation: Merton’s view of social structure emphasizes the pattern of relationships, roles, norms, and institutions that guide behavior and social interactions in society.

41. In Merton’s functionalism, the concept of “cultural goals” refers to:

(A) The standards and values that individuals strive to achieve in society

(B) The social institutions that support individuals' actions

(D) The specific roles individuals must take on in society

(A) The standards and values that individuals strive to achieve in society

Explanation: Merton’s “cultural goals” are the values and objectives that society encourages individuals to achieve, such as wealth, success, or social recognition.

42. According to Merton’s strain theory, which of the following is the “innovator” type?

(A) An individual who conforms to societal rules and accepts societal goals

(B) An individual who rejects societal goals but follows the prescribed means

(D) An individual who creates new goals and methods to achieve them

Explanation: An "innovator" in Merton's strain theory accepts societal goals but rejects or changes the prescribed means to achieve them, often resorting to deviant behavior like crime to reach these goals.

43. Merton used the term “strain” to describe:

(A) The pressure that arises when individuals cannot achieve culturally prescribed goals through legitimate means

(B) The conflict between individual and group behaviors in society

(D) The emotional stress caused by social inequality

(A) The pressure that arises when individuals cannot achieve culturally prescribed goals through legitimate means

Explanation: Strain theory emphasizes the pressure individuals experience when they cannot achieve the goals set by society, especially when they lack access to approved means of achieving those goals.

44. What is the function of “social control” in Merton’s functionalist theory?

(A) To create inequality in society

(B) To ensure that individuals conform to societal norms and rules

(D) To break down societal structures that prevent change

(B) To ensure that individuals conform to societal norms and rules

Explanation: In Merton’s theory, social control refers to the mechanisms, such as laws and norms, that are used to ensure individuals follow societal rules and maintain social order.

45. Which of the following is an example of “conformity” according to Merton’s strain theory?

(A) An individual who accepts societal goals and means without deviation

(B) An individual who rejects societal goals and means

(D) An individual who creates new goals and ways to achieve them

(A) An individual who accepts societal goals and means without deviation

Explanation: Conformity in Merton’s strain theory refers to individuals who accept both the culturally prescribed goals and the prescribed means to achieve them, without resorting to deviance.

46. Merton's concept of “role set” refers to:

(A) The specific roles that an individual takes on in society

(B) The people and groups that individuals interact with in performing a specific role

(D) The division of roles within a social institution

(B) The people and groups that individuals interact with in performing a specific role

Explanation: A "role set" refers to the collection of individuals or groups with whom an individual interacts while performing a specific role, such as a teacher interacting with students, parents, and colleagues.

47. Merton’s “middle-range theory” suggests that sociologists should:

(A) Focus on grand, abstract theories about society

(B) Develop theories that can be empirically tested in specific contexts

(D) Study individual behaviors in isolation from social structures

(B) Develop theories that can be empirically tested in specific contexts

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory emphasizes developing theories that are grounded in empirical research and can be tested against specific social phenomena, rather than grand, abstract theoretical frameworks.

48. According to Merton, “dysfunction” refers to:

(A) The positive functions performed by social structures

(B) The harmful or destabilizing consequences of social actions or structures

(D) The new social norms created by social change

(B) The harmful or destabilizing consequences of social actions or structures

Explanation: Dysfunction refers to the negative or destabilizing effects of social actions or structures that disrupt social order or create problems in society.

49. According to Merton, the “anomie” is a condition where:

(A) Social norms are clear and everyone knows how to behave

(B) Society has no laws or regulations

(D) Social order is maintained through strict enforcement of norms

Explanation: Anomie is a condition of normlessness, where social norms and values are unclear or conflicting, which can lead to confusion, frustration, or deviance among individuals.

50. According to Merton, a “ritualist” in strain theory is an individual who:

(A) Rejects societal goals but still follows societal means

(B) Accepts societal goals but finds alternative means to achieve them

(D) Conforms to societal norms and strives to achieve success

(A) Rejects societal goals but still follows societal means

Explanation: A "ritualist" in Merton’s strain theory has abandoned the pursuit of societal goals but continues to strictly follow societal rules and means, even though they no longer lead to the original goals.

51. Merton’s concept of “role conflict” occurs when:

(A) An individual faces contradictory expectations from two different roles

(B) An individual is unable to fulfill the expectations of a single role

(D) An individual finds harmony between their multiple roles

(A) An individual faces contradictory expectations from two different roles

Explanation: Role conflict occurs when individuals are forced to fulfill conflicting expectations from two or more roles, such as balancing work and family responsibilities.

52. According to Merton, “social structure” is best understood as:

(A) The physical architecture of a society

(B) The network of relationships, roles, and institutions in a society

(D) The set of cultural beliefs in a society

(B) The network of relationships, roles, and institutions in a society

Explanation: Merton’s view of social structure emphasizes the network of relationships, institutions, and roles that make up the framework of society, guiding how individuals and groups behave within it.

53. In Merton’s theory, the “innovator” typically:

(A) Accepts both societal goals and means, without deviation

(B) Rejects societal goals and means entirely

(D) Conforms to societal rules without attempting to achieve societal goals

Explanation: In Merton’s strain theory, an "innovator" accepts societal goals (such as wealth or success) but rejects the conventional means to achieve them, often turning to unapproved or deviant methods (e.g., criminal behavior).

54. Merton’s concept of “dysfunctions” refers to:

(A) The positive functions performed by social institutions

(B) The negative consequences of social structures that disrupt social stability

(D) The beneficial impact of individual deviance

(B) The negative consequences of social structures that disrupt social stability

Explanation: Merton introduced the concept of dysfunctions to describe the negative or harmful consequences of social structures or actions that disrupt the functioning of society.

55. Which of the following is an example of a latent dysfunction in a social institution?

(A) Education providing students with job-related skills

(B) The education system reinforcing social inequality, though not intended

(D) Religion reinforcing moral values and community cohesion

(B) The education system reinforcing social inequality, though not intended

Explanation: Latent dysfunctions are unintended negative consequences of social institutions. In this case, education may unintentionally reinforce social inequality, despite its intended purpose of providing equal opportunities for all students.

56. According to Merton, “anomie” is likely to occur when:

(A) Societal norms are too rigid and strictly enforced

(B) Social structures and norms become too clear and predictable

(D) There is a total breakdown of social norms and values

Explanation: Merton’s concept of anomie refers to the breakdown or disconnect between societal goals (like wealth or success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them, leading to frustration and deviance.

57. According to Merton, “role strain” is different from “role conflict” because role strain refers to:

(A) The tension caused by competing roles from different social statuses

(B) The stress caused by conflicting demands within a single role

(D) The absence of any roles within society

(B) The stress caused by conflicting demands within a single role

Explanation: Role strain occurs when an individual experiences tension or difficulty in fulfilling the expectations of a single role (e.g., a parent struggling to balance work and child-rearing duties), while role conflict refers to competing demands from different roles.

58. Which of the following is an example of “conformity” in Merton’s strain theory?

(A) An individual who accepts societal goals and means, following them without deviation

(B) An individual who rejects societal goals and creates new ones

(D) An individual who abandons both societal goals and means

(A) An individual who accepts societal goals and means, following them without deviation

Explanation: In Merton’s strain theory, "conformity" refers to individuals who accept both societal goals and the prescribed means for achieving them, without resorting to deviant behavior.

59. Merton's “middle-range theory” is characterized by:

(A) Grand theoretical ideas that apply universally across all societies

(B) The focus on small-scale, everyday social interactions

(D) The exploration of psychological factors in social behavior

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory bridges the gap between abstract, grand theories and empirical research by focusing on specific social phenomena that can be tested through observation and data.

60. In Merton’s functional analysis, social structures may be seen as functional for:

(A) Only the elite and powerful groups in society

(B) Certain groups, while being dysfunctional for others

(D) Only a few individuals in society

(B) Certain groups, while being dysfunctional for others

Explanation: Merton’s functional analysis acknowledges that social structures may benefit some groups, while others may experience negative consequences (dysfunctions), highlighting the unequal distribution of benefits in society.

61. Merton’s theory of functionalism emphasizes that:

(A) Social structures always function in the same way in every society

(B) Social structures exist because they fulfill the needs of society

(D) Social structures only function to benefit powerful groups

(B) Social structures exist because they fulfill the needs of society

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism suggests that social structures exist because they fulfill certain needs or functions for society. These functions can be manifest, latent, or dysfunctional depending on their impact.

62. Merton introduced the term “anomie” to explain:

(A) The failure of societal norms to regulate individual behavior

(B) The breakdown of traditional family structures

(D) The positive impact of cultural diversity on society

(A) The failure of societal norms to regulate individual behavior

Explanation: Merton used the concept of anomie to describe a state where societal norms are unclear or insufficient, leading to a lack of regulation of individual behavior, often resulting in deviance.

63. According to Merton, “social norms” in a society are meant to:

(A) Create a rigid and oppressive social order

(B) Encourage conformity to social roles and goals

(D) Allow individuals to resist social structures

(B) Encourage conformity to social roles and goals

Explanation: Social norms in Merton’s functionalism are meant to guide behavior in society by promoting conformity to social roles and the achievement of societal goals in an orderly way.

64. In Merton’s strain theory, an individual who accepts the societal goals but uses illegal or deviant methods to achieve them is known as a:

(A) Conformist

(B) Innovator

(D) Rebel

(B) Innovator

Explanation: An "innovator" in Merton’s strain theory accepts societal goals but rejects or changes the prescribed means to achieve them, often using unapproved or deviant methods (e.g., crime).

65. According to Merton, the concept of "role strain" is caused by:

(A) The tension between individuals’ roles in different social settings

(B) Conflicting demands within a single role

(D) The conflict between societal norms and personal goals

(B) Conflicting demands within a single role

Explanation: Role strain occurs when an individual faces difficulty or stress in fulfilling the expectations associated with a single role, such as the pressures of balancing work and family responsibilities.

66. Merton’s “middle-range theory” proposes that sociologists should:

(A) Develop abstract theories without empirical support

(B) Focus only on specific empirical observations and phenomena

(D) Study the role of the individual in the context of social institutions

(B) Focus only on specific empirical observations and phenomena

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory emphasizes the development of theories that are grounded in specific empirical phenomena, which can be tested and observed, bridging the gap between abstract theories and real-world data.

67. According to Merton, the “cultural goals” of society are:

(A) The values and ideals that society strives to achieve

(B) The constraints and restrictions placed on individual behavior

(D) The daily interactions between individuals

(A) The values and ideals that society strives to achieve

Explanation: Merton’s "cultural goals" refer to the aspirations or ideals that society encourages individuals to strive for, such as wealth, success, and social recognition.

68. Merton’s theory of role conflict is most applicable when:

(A) An individual faces competing demands from two or more roles they occupy

(B) An individual feels tension within a single role

(D) There is an absence of clear role expectations

(A) An individual faces competing demands from two or more roles they occupy

Explanation: Role conflict occurs when individuals experience tension due to the conflicting demands of two or more roles they occupy, such as balancing work and family responsibilities.

69. According to Merton, “dysfunctions” refer to:

(A) The positive functions performed by social institutions

(B) The unintended and harmful consequences of social actions

(D) The beneficial effects of deviant behavior on society

(B) The unintended and harmful consequences of social actions

Explanation: Dysfunctions refer to the unintended and often harmful consequences of social structures or actions that disrupt the stability of society or create social problems.

70. According to Merton, “social structures” are necessary because they:

(A) Help maintain order and stability within society

(B) Promote inequality between different groups

(D) Are imposed by the ruling class to maintain power

(A) Help maintain order and stability within society

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism emphasizes that social structures exist to help maintain order, stability, and social cohesion, ensuring that societal needs are met through the cooperation of institutions and roles.

71. According to Merton’s strain theory, “rebels” are individuals who:

(A) Reject both societal goals and means and create new goals

(B) Conform to societal goals but use deviant means to achieve them

(D) Reject societal goals but follow the prescribed means

(A) Reject both societal goals and means and create new goals

Explanation: "Rebels" in Merton’s strain theory reject both the societal goals and means, instead creating new goals and methods, often in opposition to societal expectations.

72. In Merton's theory, “cultural goals” refer to:

(A) The acceptable behaviors that people exhibit in society

(B) The societal expectations of what people should achieve, such as wealth and success

(D) The roles that individuals must play in society

(B) The societal expectations of what people should achieve, such as wealth and success

Explanation: Cultural goals are the desired societal outcomes individuals strive for, such as wealth, success, and prestige, which are culturally defined as valuable.

73. In Merton’s functionalism, “manifest functions” refer to:

(A) Unintended consequences of social actions

(B) The hidden or unobserved outcomes of social actions

(D) The negative consequences of social institutions

Explanation: Manifest functions are the intended and observable outcomes of social actions or institutions, such as the purpose of education being to teach literacy and knowledge.

74. Merton’s “middle-range theory” can be described as:

(A) Theories that aim to explain large-scale societal processes without empirical support

(B) Theories that are abstract and not testable

(D) Grand theories that attempt to explain everything in society

Explanation: Merton's middle-range theory focuses on specific, testable social phenomena that lie between grand theoretical frameworks and specific empirical observations, providing a more grounded approach to sociology.

75. According to Merton, “role strain” occurs when:

(A) An individual faces conflicting demands from two different roles

(B) An individual experiences difficulty in meeting the expectations within a single role

(D) An individual accepts societal goals but rejects the means

(B) An individual experiences difficulty in meeting the expectations within a single role

Explanation: Role strain occurs when an individual faces difficulty fulfilling the demands and expectations of a single social role, such as trying to balance work and family responsibilities.

76. “Functional alternatives” as introduced by Merton refers to:

(A) The conflict between different social institutions

(B) The existence of multiple ways in which social functions can be fulfilled

(D) The static nature of social structures that cannot be replaced

(B) The existence of multiple ways in which social functions can be fulfilled

Explanation: Merton’s concept of "functional alternatives" suggests that there can be different social institutions or practices that can fulfill the same social function, which challenges the notion that one institution is indispensable.

77. Merton’s strain theory includes “conformity”, which is best described as:

(A) Rejection of societal goals but following societal means

(B) Acceptance of societal goals and following the prescribed means

(D) Acceptance of societal goals but using new, unapproved means

(B) Acceptance of societal goals and following the prescribed means

Explanation: In Merton’s strain theory, "conformity" refers to individuals who accept both the societal goals and the prescribed means for achieving those goals without resorting to deviant behavior.

78. Which of the following would be an example of latent dysfunction in a social institution?

(A) A social institution achieving its intended goals

(B) The positive consequences of a social structure

(D) The social function of controlling deviant behavior

Explanation: Latent dysfunctions are the unintended harmful consequences of social structures that can destabilize social systems, even though these outcomes were not the intended purpose of the institution.

79. In Merton's strain theory, “ritualism” refers to:

(A) The complete rejection of societal goals and means

(B) Accepting societal goals but using deviant methods to achieve them

(D) Rejection of societal means but creating new goals

Explanation: In Merton's strain theory, "ritualism" occurs when individuals rigidly follow societal rules and norms, even though those rules no longer help them achieve societal goals (e.g., going through the motions without achieving success).

80. Merton’s functionalism suggests that social norms are essential because they:

(A) Restrict individual freedom and creativity

(B) Help maintain order and stability in society

(D) Have no role in regulating social life

(B) Help maintain order and stability in society

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism highlights that social norms are crucial for maintaining social order, stability, and predictability in society, guiding individuals’ behaviors and interactions.

81. Merton’s strain theory assumes that society sets certain culturally approved goals, which are:

(A) Different in every society and not fixed

(B) The universal aspirations that everyone must strive to achieve

(D) Not defined or recognized by society

(B) The universal aspirations that everyone must strive to achieve

Explanation: Merton’s strain theory assumes that society sets certain culturally approved goals that everyone is encouraged to achieve, such as success, wealth, and status.

82. Anomie, in Merton’s view, occurs when:

(A) There is a disconnect between the goals and the means of achieving them

(B) Individuals completely reject social norms

(D) Society's goals are unclear or undefined

(A) There is a disconnect between the goals and the means of achieving them

Explanation: Anomie, in Merton’s theory, refers to a state of normlessness or breakdown in social norms when there is a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them.

83. According to Merton, “rebellion” occurs when individuals:

(A) Accept both societal goals and means but follow new methods

(B) Reject both societal goals and means and replace them with new ones

(D) Conform to societal goals and reject the means

(B) Reject both societal goals and means and replace them with new ones

Explanation: A "rebel" in Merton's strain theory rejects both the cultural goals and the prescribed means, opting instead to create new goals and methods that challenge the existing social order.

84. According to Merton, “innovation” involves:

(A) The acceptance of societal goals and using new, approved means

(B) The rejection of societal norms and goals

(D) The complete abandonment of social roles and norms

Explanation: In Merton’s strain theory, innovation occurs when an individual accepts the cultural goals (such as wealth or success) but resorts to new, often deviant, means to achieve them.

85. Which of the following is a key feature of Merton’s concept of “functionalism”?

(A) It views social structures as static and unchanging

(B) It emphasizes the conflict between different social groups

(D) It focuses on individual agency and free will

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism assumes that each part of society, such as social institutions, plays a role in maintaining the overall stability and order of society. It looks at how society functions as an interconnected whole.

86. “Manifest functions” refer to:

(A) The negative, unintended consequences of a social structure

(B) The observable, intended consequences of social actions or structures

(D) The actions that challenge existing social norms

(B) The observable, intended consequences of social actions or structures

Explanation: Manifest functions are the intended and observable consequences of social actions or structures. For example, the intended purpose of an education system is to teach students knowledge and skills.

87. According to Merton, “latency” in society refers to:

(A) The level of conformity to societal norms

(B) The hidden or unobservable functions and consequences of social structures

(D) The process of socialization

(B) The hidden or unobservable functions and consequences of social structures

Explanation: In Merton's framework, latency refers to the hidden or unobservable functions of social structures, which are not immediately apparent but still play a significant role in maintaining social order.

88. Merton’s idea of “social equilibrium” involves:

(A) The constant state of conflict between groups in society

(B) The stability of social structures through shared norms and values

(D) The uniform behavior of individuals across society

(B) The stability of social structures through shared norms and values

Explanation: Social equilibrium in Merton’s functionalism refers to the balance and stability achieved in society through shared norms and values, where social institutions function smoothly to maintain social order.

89. According to Merton, “deviance” in society is most likely to occur when:

(A) Society's norms are very rigid and universally accepted

(B) Individuals reject both societal goals and means

(D) Social norms encourage conformity in all circumstances

Explanation: Merton’s strain theory suggests that deviance occurs when individuals are unable to achieve societal goals through accepted means, which may lead them to adopt alternative methods, often seen as deviant.

90. Which of the following is a criticism of Merton’s functionalism?

(A) It overemphasizes the role of conflict and inequality in society

(B) It fails to account for the role of individuals in shaping social structures

(D) It focuses too much on individual behavior rather than social systems

Explanation: A common criticism of Merton’s functionalism is that it overlooks the power dynamics and inequalities between different social groups, focusing too much on how structures contribute to social stability rather than the conflicts inherent in society.

91. According to Merton, the term “role strain” refers to:

(A) The tension between the roles of different social statuses

(B) The tension an individual experiences within a single role due to conflicting demands

(D) The pressure an individual faces when trying to conform to social norms

(B) The tension an individual experiences within a single role due to conflicting demands

Explanation: Role strain occurs when an individual experiences stress or difficulty in fulfilling the demands and expectations of a single role, such as trying to balance work responsibilities with family obligations.

92. Merton’s functionalism assumes that social structures:

(A) Always serve the same purpose for everyone

(B) May have both positive and negative consequences for society

(D) Only function to support the powerful groups in society

(B) May have both positive and negative consequences for society

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism recognizes that social structures can have both manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions, some of which can be beneficial, while others may be dysfunctional or harmful to society.

93. According to Merton, the “manifest function” of a social institution refers to:

(A) The unintended and hidden effects of social actions

(B) The visible, intended, and observable consequences of social actions or structures

(D) The deviation from societal goals

(B) The visible, intended, and observable consequences of social actions or structures

Explanation: Manifest functions are the intended and observable outcomes of social actions, such as the education system’s intended purpose of teaching students skills and knowledge.

94. In Merton’s “strain theory”, a “ritualist” is someone who:

(A) Rejects societal goals but follows the means

(B) Accepts societal goals and uses deviant means to achieve them

(D) Rejects both societal goals and means and creates new ones

(A) Rejects societal goals but follows the means

Explanation: A "ritualist" in Merton’s strain theory is someone who abandons the societal goals (such as wealth or success) but still rigidly follows the prescribed means, even though they no longer lead to the original goals.

95. Merton’s theory emphasizes that social change can be:

(A) Caused solely by individual actions

(B) Driven by disruptions in the existing social structure

(D) Completely controlled and predictable

(B) Driven by disruptions in the existing social structure

Explanation: Merton's functionalism suggests that social change can be driven by disruptions or dysfunctions within the social structure, which can lead to adjustments and shifts in the system.

96. According to Merton, “anomie” is most likely to occur when:

(A) There is an imbalance between societal goals and the means to achieve them

(B) Society has well-defined goals and clear means to achieve them

(D) People reject societal values and norms

(A) There is an imbalance between societal goals and the means to achieve them

Explanation: Anomie occurs when there is a disconnect or imbalance between societal goals (such as success or wealth) and the legitimate means available to achieve those goals, leading to confusion or deviance.

97. Merton’s theory of functionalism suggests that social structures:

(A) Are inherently beneficial to society

(B) Serve specific functions but may also contribute to social problems

(D) Are determined by the ruling class

(B) Serve specific functions but may also contribute to social problems

Explanation: Merton believed that social structures serve important functions, but they may also have negative consequences (dysfunctions), contributing to social problems or inequalities.

98. Merton's concept of “middle-range theory” aims to:

(A) Explain abstract theories with universal applicability

(B) Focus on specific, testable social phenomena

(D) Provide a general framework without practical applications

(B) Focus on specific, testable social phenomena

Explanation: Merton’s middle-range theory provides a way to connect abstract grand theories with empirical research, focusing on specific social phenomena that can be tested and analyzed in real-world contexts.

99. According to Merton, “role conflict” arises when:

(A) An individual faces conflicting demands from different roles in society

(B) An individual feels stress within a single role

(D) An individual is unsure about their role in society

(A) An individual faces conflicting demands from different roles in society

Explanation: Role conflict occurs when an individual faces contradictory or competing demands from multiple roles, such as balancing work and family obligations.

100. Merton’s theory of functionalism suggests that social order is maintained by:

(A) The powerful groups in society imposing control

(B) Shared values, norms, and structures that guide behavior

(D) The complete breakdown of social norms

(B) Shared values, norms, and structures that guide behavior

Explanation: Merton’s functionalism argues that social order is maintained through shared values, norms, and social structures that guide and regulate individual behavior, ensuring stability in society.

Functionalism: R. K. Merton

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