CULTURE

CULTURE

Meaning of Culture

‘Culture’ is one of the most important concepts in Social Science. It is commonly used in Psychology, Political Science and Economics. It is the main concept in Anthropology and a fundamental one in Sociology. The study of human society immediately and necessarily leads us to the study of its culture. The study of society or any aspect of it becomes incomplete without a proper understanding of the culture of that society. Culture and society go together. They are inseparable.

Culture is a unique possession of man. It is one of the distinguishing traits of human society. Culture does not exist at the sub-human level. Only man is born and brought up in a cultural environment. Other animals live in a natural environment. A man is a social being and a cultural being also. As every man is born into a society, it is same as saying that every man is born into culture.

The term ‘culture’ is given a wide variety of meanings and interpretations. Culture is a very broad term that includes in itself all our walks of life, our modes of behaviour, our philosophies and ethics, our morals and manners, our customs and traditions, our religious, political, economic and other types of activities. Culture includes all that man has acquired in his individual and social life. In the words of MacIver and Page, culture is the “realm of styles, of values, of emotional attachment, of intellectual adventures”. It is the entire ‘social heritage’ which the individual receives from the group. In Sociology ‘culture’ does not mean personal refinement.

The Sociological meaning of the word is quite different. But common men often speak of culture as synonymous with education. Accordingly, they apply the term ‘cultured’ to an educated person or group and ‘uncultured’ to one lacking on or devoid of education. Historians use the word ‘culture’ in yet another way to refer to the so-called ‘higher’ achievements of group life or of a period of history. But Sociologists never use the term ‘culture’ to mean the so-called ‘higher’ achievements of group life-art, religion, philosophy, etc. They use culture to mean ‘all’ the achievements of group life. So, we can say culture is the treasury of knowledge, it defines situations, it defines attitudes, values and goals, it decides our career and provides behaviour patterns and after all culture moulds one’s personality.

It is true that the individual is exposed to and moulded by the culture of the group into which he is born. Still, no individual is completely culturally determined. Every individual is unique in any culture. The uniqueness may be based on individual differences in ability, aptitude, and learning. The impact of culture on the individual is not always identical in every case. Various biological and social factors bring about the uniqueness of the individuals in any culture.

Culture is a unique possession of man. The distinctive human way of life that we call culture did not have a single definite beginning in time. This is obvious because men never suddenly appeared simultaneously on all parts of the earth at a single time. Culture is often understood as anything that is created and cultivated by man. Man’s culture in a way has begun with man’s capacity to use and to create or produce tools and techniques.

Definition of Culture

1. Edward. B. Tylor has defined that “culture is the complex which includes knowledge, belief, morals, art, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

2. Malinowski has defined culture as the ‘cumulative creation of man.’ He also regards culture as the handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

3. Mazumdar defined that “culture is the sum total of human achievements material as well as non-material, capable of transmission by tradition and communication vertically as well as horizontally.”

4. C. North is of the opinion that culture “consists in the instruments constituted by man to assist him in satisfying his wants.”

5. Robert Bierstedt is of the opinion that “culture is the complex whole that consists of all the ways we think and do and everything we have as members of society.”

Components of Culture

Culture encompasses several elements. Some of the components of culture are –

1. Norms: Norms are established standards of social behaviour that individuals in a group are expected to follow. Norms are prescriptive as well as proscriptive.

a. Prescriptive Norms: They tell us what we “should”, “ought’, and “must” do.

b. Proscriptive Norms: They also tell us what we “should not”, “ought not”, and “must not” do.

Norms are bundles of dos and don’ts; they are rules of behaviour in a particular situation. For example, in all societies, there are norms that define acceptable male and female dress, appropriate dress for particular situations, like, attending a wedding party, a funeral or office. Norms exist in all areas of social life.

Norms are enforced by sanctions, i.e., rewards and punishment. But all norms are not equally strict, and they do not carry the same kinds of punishment because they vary in importance. Norms are classified into three types:

i. Mores being the most important norms in society and those who violate are severely punished because conformity to mores is considered vital to the welfare of society. Their violations are punishable in various ways. For example, forgery, rape, murder, and child abuse are violations of mores.

ii. Folkways are the most appropriate way of doing things that are deemed to be of less importance and punishment for violating they are much less severe. Folkways are the customary ways and ordinary conventions by which people carry out their daily activities such as the modes of preparing food, the kinds of food chosen, the regular brushing of the teeth, wearing shoes or preparing food, the sandals, and greeting friends.

iii. Laws are rules which are formally established by the state or other organizations. These are rules that formally define the required types of behaviour and specify the penalties to be imposed upon its violators. Laws are enforced by a special political organization having the legitimate power to use force. For example, fastening the seat belt in your automobile or wearing a helmet while riding a motorcycle, to payment of taxes, and prevention of corruption and homicide.

2. Values: Values are shared agreements among members of a society as to what is desirable or undesirable in social life values generalized standards by which people define what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly, sought or avoided. Instead, values provide us with criteria and ideas by which we evaluate people, objects, and events as to their relative worth or morality. Values often suggest how people should behave, but they do not accurately reflect how people do behave. For example, children are expected to be polite and respectful in front of elders.

3. Beliefs: A belief is an idea or statement about reality which people accept as true. It may be based on their experiences in the past, scientific evidence, religious faith, or public opinion. Some beliefs are scientific and empirically verifiable. However, belief in God and beliefs about the soul, hell, and heaven are based solely on faith. Many people in India have unshakable beliefs about the horoscope, astrology, and auspicious hour. For example, In India, Hindu weddings are always scheduled about the horoscope, astrology, and auspicious hour. In Thailand, people never step on the threshold of the door because they believe the good spirit that protects the home resides there. Americans believe that the number thirteen brings bad luck. The Hong Kong Chinese will pay lakhs of rupees to get a license plate for their automobile with certain lucky numbers. Therefore, a sympathetic understanding of people’s beliefs is essential to comprehend why people in different cultures view the world differently.

The Difference between Material and Non-Material Culture

In each and every culture, we can see the material and non-material cultures.

Material Culture: It includes all those artefacts or things that have been created by man himself for his use, e.g., houses, furniture, clothes, tools, etc. It is that aspect that can be seen, touched and observed. The elements of material culture can be created, built, destroyed and rebuilt, and improved upon deliberately according to the needs and desires of man. Some creations are to protect man from the environment, and help man in the process of survival and fight the inclement weather and hostile climate. Certain aspects, like medicines, are invented, discovered and put to use to fight diseases, improve health and quality of life. Some aspects of material culture are created and built to fulfil the desires and needs arising out of changes in non-material culture, i.e., ideational aspects of culture. Variations in material culture are wider and more widespread as compared to non-material culture.

Non-material Culture: It includes all non-material and spiritual aspects of culture. Ellenwood defined culture in terms of the whole of man’s material civilization like tools, weapons, clothing, shelter, machines, and even systems of industry’, and on the other hand as man’s non-material or spiritual civilization, such as language, literature, art, religion, ritual, morality, law and government. The definition clearly identifies the areas that fall under material and nonmaterial culture.

Elements of Culture 

A culture is more than the sum of its parts. A mere listing of customs and norms and the material objects associated with them would by no means give a true picture of the culture. For the sake of anthropological analysis, culture may be broken down into the following main elements. These elements or components are types of norms, sanctions, values, culture trait, culture complex and culture pattern. 

1. Values: What is considered as good, proper and desirable, or bad, improper or undesirable, in a culture can be called as values. It influences people’s behaviour and serves as a benchmark for evaluating the actions of others. There is often a direct relationship between the values, norms, and sanctions of a culture. 

2. Norms: Norms refer to a standard pattern of behaviour that is accepted by society. Norms may differ from society to society. Generally, there are two types of norms formal norms and informal norms. Norms that are written down and violation of which can lead to punishment is referred to as formal norms. By contrast, informal norms are generally understood and followed by society though not recorded in black and white.

3. Sanctions: Sanctions consist of both rewards and penalties. It includes rewards for conducting the norms of the society as prescribed or penalties for defying the concerning social norms. Adherence to a norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back. Negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment, and even unpleasant stares for contempt. The most cherished values of a culture will be most heavily sanctioned, whereas matters regarded as less critical will carry light and informal sanctions. 

4. Culture Traits: Culture traits are the smallest (simplest) units of a particular culture. They are the building blocks of culture. Each trait can be material or non-material and it is analogous to the unit of the human body, the cell. Each cultural trait has a form, use, function and meaning. As several cells form a tissue, several traits form a complex culture.

______________________________________________________

Reference:

NIOS: Culture: an Introduction ~ Link

What Is Culture? What Does It Do? What Should It Do? ~ Link

Sociological concepts of culture and identity ~ Link

The Concept of Culture ~ Link

IGNOU: UNIT 1 Concept Of Society and Culture ~ Link

What is Culture? ~ Link

Tylor, E. B. (1920). Primitive Culture Volume I (Vol. I). Dover Publications.