Social Groups

Meaning of Groups

Famous Sociologist H. M. Johnson remarked that, “sociology is the science that deals with social groups.” This shows the importance of social group in sociology.

Human beings never live in isolation. He rarely exists alone. Human life is essentially a group life. As a social animal he always lives in group. He begins his life as a participating member of the group i.e. family. He born, live, grows and die in group. He forms group to fulfill his different needs and to attain common goals groups plays an important role in shaping personality, in the development of social organization and socialization. That is why the study of group is very important in understanding the behavior of men and women. Hence group is one of the basic concepts in sociology. The concept of group may be considered from both individual and society’s point of view. Famous sociologist W. G. Sumner, C. H. Cooley, T. M. Newcomb and R. K. Merton made important contributions to the development of the concept of group.

Meaning of Social Group

The term social group consists of two term i.e., social and group ordinarily by social group we mean a collection of human beings. But the term social refers to social relationships or shared behaviours. Similarly in the words of E. S. Bogardus term “group refers to a number of units of anything in close proximity with one another.” Accordingly, it may refers to a group of trees, a group of houses, a group of horses etc. But in case of human beings as MacIver and Page define social group as ‘any collection of human beings who are brought into human relationships with one another.’ Accordingly, a social group is a collection of interaction individuals who participate in similar activities and have a consciousness of joint interaction. There exists some degree of reciprocity and mutual awareness among the individuals. A social group is an organized one. Besides having mutual interaction and reciprocity the members f a social group having similar goals. The members of a social group interact according to some established patterns. A definite relation exists among individuals which constitute a social group. In the truest sociological sense a group refers to a collection of individuals who are brought into social relationship with one another and organize themselves for the fulfillment of common aims.

Definition of Social Group

1. According to Harry M. Johnson says that “A social group is a system of social interaction.”

2. According to Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social group is “two or more people between whom there is an established pattern of interaction.”

3. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff offered their view saying, “Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.”

4. According to Edward Sapin opined, “A social group is constituted by the fact that there is some interest which holds its members together.”

5. According to Emory S. Bogardus defines social group as ‘a number of persons, two or more, who have common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate in similar activities.’

6. According to Maclver explained group as, “By group we mean any collection of social beings, who enter into distinctive social relationships with one another.”

Characteristics of Social Group

The Characteristics of Social Group is listed below:

1. Given number of Individual: A social group consists of a given number of individuals. Without a number of individuals no social group can be formed. Two or more than that individual are necessary to form a group. This number may vary. These individuals belong to the group as members of the group and are considered as unit of the group.

2. Reciprocal Relations: There exist reciprocal relations among the members of a social group. These reciprocal relations among the members are the basis or foundation of social group without which social group cannot be formed. The members must interact or inter-related with each other.

3. Common Goals: It is another important characteristic of a social group. The aims, objectives and ideals of the members are common. For the fulfillment of these common goals social groups are formed. Here individual interests are sacrificed for group interests.

4. Sense of unity and solidarity: Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and bond of solidarity, common goals and mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and solidarity. This creates loyalty and sympathy among the members of social group.

5. A strong sense of awe-feeling: Members of a social group is characterized by a strong sense of awe-feeling. This we- feeling fosters co-operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the members identify themselves with the group and consider others as outsiders.

6. Group Norms: Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are supposed to follow. With the help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over it’s members. These norms may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is followed by punishment. The group norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.

7. Similar Behavior: Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the interests, ideals and values of a group are common hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar behavior helps in the achievement of common goals.

8. Awareness: Members of a social group are aware about the membership which distinguishes them from others. This is perhaps due to ‘the consciousness of kind’ as opined by Giddings.

9. Group Control: Social group exercises some sort of control over its members and over their activities. This control may be direct or indirect. Of course group exercises control only over non-conformists or deviants.

10. Social groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. There are permanent groups likes family and temporary groups like crowd, mob etc.

11. Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is not static. It responds to different changes. The nature of change may be slow or rapid but it is bound to occur.

12. Social groups have established patterns.

Classification of Groups

Group are not alike. Any lay man can observe the differences among the groups. But sociologists have classified groups into different types according to their own viewpoint. Some sociologists have given a simple classification while others have given a elaborate and exhaustive classifications. But these classifications of groups based on size, membership, complexity, nature of interests, degree of organization or kind of contact.

The classification made by C. H. Cooley and W. G. Sumner needs special analysis. These are described in detail.

Primary Group

Famous American Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley in his book ‘Social Organizaion’ published in the year 1909 has given the most popular classification of social group. In that book he classified groups into primary and secondary types on the basis of nature of social relations and closeness. Cooley only used the term ‘primary group’ in his book but no where he used the term secondary group. But later on sociologists K. Davis, W.F. Ogburn and Maclver developed the concept of secondary group from Cooley’s concept of primary group. This classification of Cooley is almost similar with that of Sumner’s in-group and out-group and Tonnies Geminschaft and Gesellschaft.

The primary group is the nucleus of all social organizations. It is a small group in which a small number of persons come into direct contact with one another. They meet “face to face” for mutual help, companionship and discussion of common questions. They live in the presence and thoughts of one another.

Characteristics of Primary Group

To have a clear understanding of primary group, it is necessary to analyze its characteristics. The members of a primary group directly cooperate with each other and there exists intimate and personal relationships among them. The characteristic features described below throw more light on the nature and character of primary groups.

1. Physical Proximity: In physical proximity the people relations may be close, so it is necessary that their contacts also should be close. Seeing and talking with each other makes exchange of ideas and opinions easy. It makes possible the “conversation of gestures.”

2. Small size: Relationships can be intimate and personal only in a small group. As groups become larger, each person counts less as a unique personality but more as a sheer cipher or unit. By the expansion of its members means “dispersion instead of concentration, dilution instead of reinforcement of the common interest.” In a small group the members can know one another personally and develop a group character and an intimacy more quickly. It is impossible to be in sensory contact with many people at the same time.

For example, in a family, the growth of children beyond a point may make it difficult for the members to come into close contact with each other.

3. Stability or durability of relationship: A primary group is relatively a permanent group. Other things being equal, the longer the group remains together, the more numerous and deeper the contacts be­tween its members. Social ties deepen over time. To promote intimacy in a relationship, the primary group should be stable to some extent.

4. Similarity of background: The members of a primary group must be not only close and near to each other but also approximately equally experienced and intelligent. This feature is clearly evident in a discussion group where each member presents his own view-point and takes the view-point of others.

5. Limited Self-interest: Though members join the group with the motive of satisfying their own interests, they should subordinate their interests to the central interests of the group. They must come together in a spirit to participate cooperatively. The common interest must predominate in their minds. The commonness of interests provides mental pleasure and contentment to the members.

6. Intensity of shared interests: In a primary group the common interest is shared by every member and by being shared by all the interest acquires a new significance, a new emphasis and a new valuation. Each member shares the interest intensely because he is sustained by the devotion and energy of his fellow members. The interest is now supported by a greater number of people at a higher level since the people pursue it in association which they would not pursue in isolation.

Importance of primary groups in sociology

Primary groups are important in several senses. They are equally important for individuals as well as society. It is also equally important for children, youth and adults. Because they prepare individuals to lead a successful social life. Primary group is the first group with which a child comes in contact at the prime stage of his life. It is the birthplace of human nature. Primary group plays a very important role in the socialization process and exercises social control over them. With the help of primary group we learn and use culture. They perform a number of functions for individual as well as society which show their importance.

1. Primary group shapes personality of individuals. It plays a very important role in molding, shaping and developing the personality of an individual. Because individual first come in contact with primary group. Individual is socialized in a primary group. It forms the social nature, ideas and ideals of individuals. His self develops in primary groups. A child learns social norms, standards, beliefs, morals, values, sacrifice, co-operation, sympathy and culture in a primary group.

2. Benefits of Primary Groups in Meeting Psychological Needs: It providing support, a sense of belonging, and contributing to emotional well-being through love, cooperation, and companionship. Active participation reinforces individuals’ self-perception and importance within the group.

3. Individual lives a spontaneous living in a primary group: Spontaneity is more directly and clearly revealed in a primary group. Because of this spontaneous living members of a primary group come freely together in an informal manner. These informal groups satisfy the need for spontaneous living.

4. Primary group provide a stimulus to each of its members in the pursuit of interest: The presence of others i.e. near and dear ones in a group acts as a stimulus to each. Here members get help, co-operation and inspiration from others. The interest is keenly appreciated and more ardently followed when it is shared by all the members. It is effectively pursued together.

5. Primary group provides security to all its members: Particularly it provides security to the children, old and invalids. It also provides security to its members at the time of need. A member always feels a kind of emotional support and feels that there is someone on his side.

6. Primary groups acts as an agency of social control: It exercises control over the behavior of its members and regulates their relations in an informal way. Hence there is no chance of individual member going astray. It teaches individuals to work according to the prescribed rules and regulations.

7. Primary group develops democratic spirit within itself: It develops the quality of love, affection, sympathy, co-operation, mutual help and sacrifice, tolerance and equality among its members.

8. Primary group introduces individuals to society: It teaches them how to lead a successful life in a society. It is the breeding ground of his mores and nurses his loyalties. K. Davis is right when he opines that “the primary group in the form of family initiates us into the secrets of society”. It helps the individual to internal social norms and learns culture.

9. Primary group increases the efficiency of individuals by creating a favorable atmosphere of work. It provides them security and teaches many good qualities.

10. Primary groups also fulfill different needs of society. It is the nucleus of all social organizations.

SECONDARY GROUP

Though Cooley has classified groups into primary and secondary but actually he nowhere used the term secondary group. But it was later days Scholars inferred the concept of secondary group from Cooley’s primary group. Hence it has special significance in modern society. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff says that, “the groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups.” They are constituted for some purposes and aims after achieving which they are no more required.

Characteristics of Secondary Group

The secondary groups are characterized by the following features –

1. Formal and impersonal relations: The relations of members in a secondary group are of a formal and impersonal type. It does not exercise primary influence over its members. The members need not meet face to face. They perform their jobs, carry out the orders, pay their dues and still may never see each other. The relations of the members are merely casual and of ‘touch-and-go’ type.

For example, at a bank counter or an office, meet the clerk, get out work done and come back. We are not concerned with the other aspects of his life nor find any warmth of relations in secondary groups.

2. Large in size: Secondary groups are large in size and spread all over the world.

For example, the Red Cross Society consists of thousands of members scattered all over the world.

3. Option of Membership: The membership of most of the secondary groups is not compulsory. Therefore, it is not essential to become any member like Rotary International or Red Cross Society.

4. Active and Inactive Members: In a secondary group there is absence of intimacy among its members. Due to the absence of intimate relations, some members of the group become inactive while some others are quite active.

5. Relations: The members of a secondary group hardly meet face to face. They are scattered throughout the world. For example, members of International Red Cross Society and Rotary International. They communicate with each other by indirect means.

6. Formal Rules: A secondary group is regulated by formal rules. A formal authority is set up and a clear cut division of labour is made. The organization of a secondary group is carefully worked out. As a matter of fact, the stability of a secondary group depends much upon the way it is organized than upon uncertain sentimental attachment.

7. Status of Individual Depends on his role: In a secondary group, the status of every member depends upon his role. The status of the President in a trade union depends upon the role he plays in the union and not upon his personal qualities or birth.

8. Goal oriented. The main purpose of a secondary group is to fulfill a specific function. A trade union is formed to better the working conditions of the workers. A school is opened to provide education. The success of a secondary group is judged by its efficiency in performing its task.

Therefore, no organized group can depend exclusively on secondary or contractual attitudes among its members. Attitudes of loyalty and identification do no develop automatically. They come as a result of communication from one individual to another, and especially the kind of communication that occurs in intimate personal relations. Also, there is a possibility of transformation for both groups. A primary group may be turned into a secondary group, For example, a group of close friends in college hostel may gradually lose contact with one another as they move away for their personal or professional purposes, or a secondary group of colleagues in a workplace may turn into a primary one when they settle in a multistoried building, interact intimately everyday as members of a family.

Importance of secondary group in sociology

The Sociological study of groups is mainly a 20th century phenom­enon. But it is a truism that human life is essentially group life. Hence the study of groups is of utmost importance in understanding the behavior of men and women. It is an accepted fact that a group exercises considerable influence on its members. Not only primary group but also secondary group exercises considerable influence on its members. As secondary groups are organized and help in fulfill­ing specific aims of its members hence it has several importance for both individuals and society.

Primary group have several importance in a simple, small and agricultural society. But in present day modern society the trend is towards secondary groups. The changing trends of modern techno­logical society have swept away primary groups. For the fulfillment of his needs modern man depends more on secondary groups than on primary groups. Most of the functions of primary group are being with­drawn one after another.

Most of the needs which were earlier satis­fied by primary groups are now fulfilled by secondary groups. No doubt the growth of secondary group as well as growing importance of it has created several problems. But we can’t escape from the dominating influence of secondary group. Because most of our present day needs and most of our activities and achievements are carried on through secondary groups. However, in spite of its shortcomings sec­ondary group has the following importance, advantages, or functions.

1. Efficiency: A secondary group increases efficiency of its members. To fulfill their self interest and specific goals, all the mem­bers work efficiently. A clear cut division of labor is found among the members. A formal authority is set up and a set of rules are formulated to manage and regulate the secondary group efficiently. Emphasis is given on getting the work done efficiently. Unlike pri­mary group emotion and sentiment is subordinated to achievement. For this duties and responsibilities of the members are clearly de­fined. All the members try to work efficiently to fulfill their goals. This helps in increasing the efficiency of its members.

2. Wider Opportunity: The secondary group provides better and wider opportunities for the members to develop their faculties and talents. Previously, there were only few pursuits like agriculture and small trades. But at present there are many and varied occupa­tions which open the way for new careers. As a result, due to talent, and hard work individuals can rise to unbelievable heights in business, in­dustry, education, civil or technical services.

3. Wider Outlook: The secondary group helps in broadening the outlook of its members. Because it is large in size and its mem­bers are widespread. As the secondary group accommodates a large number and variety of individuals and localities this widens the out­look of its members. Besides, a secondary group is more universal in its judgment than the primary group.

4. Functional in Character: Secondary group relations are devoid of sentiment characteristic of primary group relations. The secondary relationships are instrumental in accomplishing certain spe­cific tasks. In this sense, they may be regarded as functional in char­acter.

Distinction between primary and secondary groups

Both primary and secondary groups can be distinguished from each other from the following points:

1. Difference in Meaning: Primary group is the nucleus of all social organizations. It is characterized by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation. They are primary in several senses but they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of individuals. Family, playgroup and neighborhood are the example of primary group. But secondary groups are large scale groups in which the relationships are relatively casual, impersonal and competitive. They are consciously formed to fulfill some common goals or objectives. For example, City, Political Party etc.

2. Difference in Size: A primary group is very small in size and is confined to a small area. Because it consists of very small number of individuals. But the size of a secondary group is very large and it is spread all over the world. Because it consists of thousands of members who is widespread and scattered all over the world.

3. Difference in Stability: Primary groups are relatively stable or durable. For example, family is a stable organization. But a secondary group may be temporary or permanent. These are temporary groups like flood relief associations. As secondary groups are special interest groups after the fulfillment of the interest it automatically vanishes.

4. Difference in Co-operation: The nature of co-operation in a primary and secondary group also differs. The members of a primary group directly co-operate with each other. They play, sit and discuss together. Because of face to face contact and personal relationships direct co-operation among members is possible. But the members of a secondary group indirectly co­operate with each other. Because there exists indirect relations among the members.

5. Difference in Structure: According to the type of structure both primary and secondary group can be distinguished from each other. Primary group is based on an informal structure and is very simple. All the members participate in the same process and informal rules and regulations regulate it. On the other hand secondary group is based on formal structure and is regulated by a set of formal rules and regulations.

6. Difference in Relationships: A great deal of differences is found in the relationships among the members of a primary and secondary group. There exist direct, intimate and personal relationships among the members of a primary group. The relations are all inclusive because primary group is relationship directed. But there exists indirect and impersonal relations among the members of a secondary group. Here relations are secondary and formal.

7. Difference in the method of social control: Both primary and secondary groups can be distinguished from each other based on how they exercise control over their members. Primary group exercises controls over its members through informal means such as customs, folkways, mores etc. Secondary group have limited control over its members. But secondary group control the behavior of its members through formal means such as police, jail, court, law etc.

8. Difference in Goal: Members of a primary group have similar or common aims and objectives. Goal of a particular member is considered as the goal of all other members. But in a secondary group member have different goals. Each individual has his own goals or aims for the fulfillment of which he joins in the group.

9. Difference in effect on Personality: Both primary and secondary group can be distinguished from each other on the degree by which they affect or determine the personality of an individual. Primary group has a greater influence on the development of personality. It influences the total personality of an individual. But secondary group has little influence on the development of personality of an individual. It is mainly concerned with a particular aspect of the personality of an individual.

10. Differences in Physical Closeness: Both primary and secondary groups may be distinguished from each other on the grounds of physical nearness. Members of a primary group live in physical proximity to each other. There exists face-to-face relations among the members. But members of a secondary group the member of secondary group.

11. The relationship among the members of a primary group is spontaneous in nature, whereas external forces govern the relationship among the members of a secondary group.

12. Primary relationship is all-inclusive. Here, each member knows each other personally and they are concerned with the total aspect of human being. But the secondary relationship is not all-inclusive. Here, members do not know each other personally and are not concerned with the total aspect of life of members.

William Graham Sumner of Social Groups

W. G. Sumner classified groups into in-groups and out-groups. Let us discuss in detail his classification of groups:

In Groups (We-Group)

Famous Sociologist William Graham Sumner has classified groups on the basis of we-feeling into two broad categories such as in-group and out-group. The individual belongs to a number of groups which is considered as his in groups. In groups are the groups with which an individual identifies himself completely. Member of in-group has feelings of attachment, sympathy and affection towards the other members of these groups. In-groups are generally based on a consciousness of kind. Members of an in-group identity themselves with the word ‘we’. In-groups are relative to particular social circumstances.

These groups are marked by a feeling of ‘enthnocentrism’ i.e., the members of in-group consider their group superior than other groups. The family, the tribe, the college, the village to which a person belongs are his in groups. The members of an in group feel that their personal welfare is in some way or other connected with the other members of the group. In the relationship among the members of in group they display co-operation, goodwill, mutual help and respect for each other. Members of in-group possess a sense of solidarity a feeling of brotherhood. In-group members are always ready to sacrifice themselves for the group.

Because of in-group human qualities like love, sacrifice and sympathy develop among individuals. In-group may be called a we-group. When Odias says “We are Odias (Oriya)” are the examples of we-group feeling and also any ethnic group can be considered to constitute we-group feeling as well. There always exists a considerable degree of sympathy among the members of in-group. In-group members identify themselves with the group as a whole. In-groupness is the core of group life. This in-groupness sets the members of an in-group apart from all other people.

Characteristics of In-Group

1. Ethnocentrism: According to Sumner ethnocentrism is one of the most important characteristic of in-group. He opines ethnocentrism is that view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and others are scaled with reference to it. Because of this feeling, the members of in-group consider their group superior than other groups. It is really the sentiment of patriotism. By this primordial feeling, an individual identifies himself with the group.

2. Similar Behaviour: It is another characteristic of in-group. Members of in-group always show similar behaviour and they are similar in many respects. They show similar attitudes, opinions and similar reactions.

3. We-feeling: We-feeling is another important characteristic of in-group. Members of in-group have a strong sense of awe feeling by which they identify themselves and distinguish themselves from others. This shows a strong sense of unity among themselves.

4. Sense of Unity:  It is another characteristic of in-group. Members of in-group are united by a strong sense of unity. In-groupness creates a strong sense of unity or living together among the members of in-group. As a result of this, members consider themselves as one and united.

5. Love, Sympathy and fellow-feeling: This is another important characteristic of in-group. Good human qualities like love, sacrifice, sympathy, mutual help and fellow feeling develop only in a in group. These human qualities govern the relationship among the members.

Out-groups (they Group)

Sumner classified groups into in-groups and out-groups on the basis of we-feeling. Out-group is the opposite of in-group. An out-group is always defined by an individual with reference to his in-group. Out-groups are marked by a sense of difference and frequently, though not always, by some degree of antagonism. In other words, out-groups are those to which a person does not belong. Out-group people used the term they or other to express themselves.

Out-group refers to a group of persons towards which we feel a sense of avoidance, dislike and competition. For example, for an Indian, India is his in-group but China is an out-group for him. Out-group people do not share an awareness of kind. One does not identify himself with his out-group. We feel a sense of indifference towards the members of out-group. Individual develops a feeling of antagonism towards their out-group.

The Characteristics of out-group

Like in group out group is also found in all societies. Out group has the following characteristics:

1. Out group is always defined in relation to in group. Dissimilar behavior is marked between the members of in-group and out-group.

2. Out-group identifies itself with the help of ‘they’ or other feeling. Individual is not a member of this group. Hence, this kind of feeling develops among them.

3. Individual expresses a feeling of antagonism or enmity towards out group. Sometimes individual consider out-group as their enemy.

4. Individual always expresses or shows negative attitude towards the out-group. As a result, he does not identify himself with the out-group.

5. Out-group is not based on ethnocentrism.

Differences between in-group and out-group

1. The groups with which individual identifies himself are his in-group. one’s family, one’s college are examples of his in group. But out groups refers to those groups with which individual do not identify himself. These are outside groups. Pakistan is an out-group for Indians.

2. In-group members use the term ‘we’ to express themselves but they use the term ‘they’ for the members of out-group.

3. Individual is the member of his in-group whereas he is not at all a member of his out-group.

4. In-group based on ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is one of the important characteristics of in-group. But out-group is not based on ethnocentrism.

5. Similarity in behavior, attitude and opinion is observed among the members of in-group. But they show dissimilar behaviour; attitudes and opinions towards the members of out-group.

6. In-group members have positive attitudes towards their own in-group but they have negative attitudes towards their out-group.

7. Members of in-group display co-operation, good-will, mutual help and possess a sense of solidarity, a feeling of brotherhood and readiness to sacrifice themselves for the group. But individual shows a sense of avoidance, dislike, indifference and antagonism towards the members of out-group.

8. In-group is a group to which an individual belongs to but all other groups to which he does not belong to are his out-group.

9. Members of in-group feel that their personal welfare is bound up with other members of group but out-group members do not feel so.

Reference Groups[1]

Man is an imitative animal. The desire to imitate other individuals or groups is instinctive in him. When one finds another person progressing in life, he also desires to progress like them in order to reach their status and position. Such behavior after comparison with others is called reference behavior. Under such behavior, one relates one self to the other individuals or groups and tries to adopt their values of standards. The individuals or groups whose behavior is imitated by him are known as reference groups. Such imitation of behavior is found in both the individual and group levels.

In Sociology, the concept of reference group behavior was given by Hayman in 1942 in his book “Psychology of status.” Later, Turner, Merton and Sheriff further elaborated this concept.

According to Hayman, there are some particular individuals in a society whose standards or values become the ideals for other people and are imitated by them. Sheriff provided a psychological explanation of reference behavior. According to him an individual, in a group situation accepts the group norm but lie sometimes also begins to imitate the behavior of the distinguished people.

According to Lention, in every society, there are some roles and statuses which every individual seeks to achieve. There are two reasons for reference group behaviors. On the social and economic situation, and second, on the psychological level of the individual or group. It has been generally observed that a poor person gives more prestige to the behavior of rich, prosperous persons. Similarly, people with low mental levels are more influenced by other people.

Sheriff has defined reference groups as “these groups to which individual relates himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically”.

According to Merton, “Reference group behavior theory aims to systematize the determinants and consequences of these process of evaluation and sub-appraisal, in which the individual takes the values, or standards of other individuals and groups, as a comparative frame of reference.” Reference group behavior, according to Sheriff, grows on account of psychological relations.

In the context of reference group behavior, there are three kinds of members: aspiring members, potential members and actual members. Some individuals aspire to enter a reference group but lack the ability or capacity to enter. Their position is one of non-member. There are some individuals who do not have any desire to enter a reference group but cannot enter it on account of some personal ideas. When persons possess the capacity and ability to enter the other group but fail to do so, it is called negative membership. Such persons suffer from mental tension.

The following characteristics of Reference Group Behavior may be pointed out:

1. The individual or group considers the behavior of the other individual or group as ideal behavior and imitates it.

2. The individual or group compares himself or itself with the other individual or group,

3. In reference group behaviour, the individual or group desires to rise higher in the social scale and as such, the group or individual comes to feel its or his defects or weaknesses.

4. The feeling of relative weaknesses or defects leads to the feeling of relative deprivation in the individual or group. Thus on account of the feeling of relative deprivation and individual takes the values or standards of other individuals, which leads to change in his behavior.

According to Sheriff, man is the only animal capable of reference group behaviour. He can change his behavior by assimilating the values and standards of the other individual or group. This condition, in the words of Sheriff, stems from man’s psychological capacity to relate himself to groups, values and goods beyond the limits of immediate surroundings within his perceptual range and beyond the limits of the living present into the future.

It may also be mentioned that when an individual enters from his group to the other, it takes some time to assimilate into the other group. During this intermediate period, he feels stress and strain. Such a situation may be given the name of grouplessness, which is created by separation from his own group while, on the one hand, he gets separated from his group. On the other hand, he does not assimilate with the other group. He is thereby faced with a situation which may be called de-grouped situation.

In an open society marked by vertical mobility, the consequences of reference group behavior are functional, but in a closed society marked by horizontal mobility, the consequences are dysfunctional.

The concept of Reference Group Behavior has been criticized on the following grounds.

1. This theory does not propound any new fact.

2. It only explains the behavior but does not suggest any means to control it.

3. It only explains how an individual is influenced by a reference group, but it does not explain how the reference group is influenced by his entry on the group.

However, the importance of this theory is in the fact that it tells us about group behavior of society.

Types of Group

Sociologists and anthropologists have used different typologies to classify societies. Three of the most common, and in many ways very similar, types are the following.

Mechanical and Organic Solidarity: Emile Durkheim

In societies with Mechanical Solidarity, such as small communities, individuals share common occupations, emotions, values, and beliefs. This creates a sense of unity and sameness among people, forming a strong collective conscience.

Organic Solidarity characterizes larger societies undergoing differentiation and specialization. Here, people have diverse economic roles, leading to individualism. The unity in such societies comes from the interdependence of various parts rather than a shared collective conscience. As societies grow and specialize, the once-strong collective values tend to weaken.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: Ferdinand Tonnies

​​Charles Loomis translated the German terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft as ‘community’ and ‘society’ due to a lack of better terminology. Ferdinand Tonnies, a German sociologist, built on Durkheim’s ideas, focusing on the distinctions between traditional and modern societies.

A Gemeinschaft (Community)represents a small, traditional rural community where individuals share common values and beliefs, fostering a strong sense of community. Customs, traditions, and family ties hold great significance. Relationships are characterized by a natural will, emphasizing personal connections for their own sake. Actions are driven by a sense of community rather than personal gain.

Gesellschaft (Society) is based on rational will, where individual self-interest takes precedence. These societies have evolved into large urban conglomerations, offering individuals the freedom to pursue their private interests. Social relationships become formal and impersonal, and individuals may not necessarily share the same values. Similar to organic solidarity, there is a general weakening of the sense of community, with actions motivated more by personal interests than social obligations.

Folk and Urban Societies: Robert Redfield

Redfield’s folk—urban continuum has become a standard typology in rural sociology. This simply illustrates the difference between rural and urban societies. Rural communities are small and their population density is low. Most of the people are engaged in agriculture; other occupational roles are generally confined to traditional crafts such as pottery. Rural communities are homogeneous and cohesive. Members share the same values, beliefs, and mores. There is very little division of labour and, therefore, very little social mobility. 

The dyad and The triad: Georg Simmel 

The German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), profiled in the box below, built a sociology of forms in which he explored social dynamics in the smallest social groups. He used the term dyad to designate a social group with two members. Throughout the world, most love affairs, marriages and the closest friendships are dyadic.

A dyad, as Simmel explained, is a unique relationship due to its intense social interaction, unmatched by larger groups. In a one-to-one dynamic, each member has the other’s undivided attention, making dyads potentially the most meaningful social bonds. However, this intensity comes with a characteristic instability, resembling a two-legged stool. Both members must actively sustain the relationship, and withdrawal by either individual can lead to the collapse of the dyad. In the context of marriage, legal, economic, and religious ties support the dyad, emphasizing its societal importance. This contrasts with larger groups, which inherently exhibit more stability and can withstand the loss of multiple members.

Simmel explored the triad, a social group of three members, where each person is connected to the other two. Unlike a dyad, a triad is more stable because if tensions arise between two members, the third can mediate and restore the group’s vitality. This group dynamic explains why individuals in a dyad, like a married couple, might involve a third person, such as a counselor, to address tensions. However, a triad can also face challenges, such as two members forming a coalition or intensifying their relationship, leaving the third person feeling like a ‘third wheel.’

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[1] Bhushan, V., & Sachdeva, D. R. (2014). An Introduction to Sociology. New Delhi: Kitab Mahal Distributors. Pg. 254-256

Abraham, M. F. (2006). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theory. OUP India. (pp.94-96)

Macionis, J. J. (2009). Sociology. Pearson Education.