Auguste Comte: Positivism

Auguste Comte: Positivism

Positivism is the view that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method (techniques for investigating phenomena based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence, subject to specific principles of reasoning). The doctrine was developed in the mid-19th Century by the French sociologist and philosopher Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857).

Comte saw the scientific method as replacing Metaphysics in the history of thought and Philosophy of Science. His Law of Three Stages (or Universal Rule) sees society as undergoing three progressive phases in its quest for the truth: the theological (where everything is referenced to God, and the divine will subsume human rights); the metaphysical (the post-Enlightenment humanist period, where the universal rights of humanity are most important); and the positive (the final scientific stage, where individual rights are more important than the rule of any one person). Comte believed that Metaphysics and theology should be replaced by a hierarchy of sciences, from mathematics at the base to sociology at the top.

Comte’s theory of positivism originates from his ideas in two major works, as follows:

1. The Course of Positive Philosophy, published in 6 volumes from 1830 to 1842.

2. His book A General View of Positivism was published in 1848.

In the first three volumes of ‘The Course of Positive Philosophy,’ Comte discussed the physical sciences such as Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Biology and Astronomy. In the latter three volumes, Comte discussed some newly emerging social sciences of that time such as Sociology. In all these six volumes, Comte highlighted the importance of the utilization of the scientific method for acquiring knowledge in all disciplines. In his book ‘A General View of Positivism’, Comte discussed what should be the nature of a scientific method to be used as a systematic technique for gathering knowledge that stands true in all situations and can be verified with evidence.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

What is Positivism?

Positivism refers to “the doctrine formulated by Comte which asserts that the only true knowledge is scientific knowledge, that is, knowledge which describes and explains the co-existence and succession of observable phenomena, including both physical and social phenomena.”

Positivism denotes “any sociological approach which operates on the general assumption that the methods of physical sciences (example, measurement, search for general laws, etc.) can be carried over into the social sciences.”

Nature of Comtean Positivism

Comte used the term “positivism” in two distinctive ways:

1. Positivism as a “doctrine”

2. Positivism as a “method”

1. Positivism as a “doctrine”

i. Positivism as a way of thinking: It is a way of thinking based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works. Such knowledge can be used the course of change and improve the human condition.

2. Positivism as a “method”

i. Positivism implies the use of scientific method: By this concept, Comte means the application of scientific methods to understand society and it changes. By applying this concept to the modern societies, he emphasized that sociology must depend on careful observation, usually based on statistical measures of social statics and social dynamics. He also recognized that sociology would have to be less experimental than the physical sciences because of the ethical and practical difficulties intervening in people’s lives.

ii. Positivism would essentially mean a method of approach: The methods of science can give us knowledge of the laws of co-existence and succession of phenomena but can never penetrate to the inner “essence” or “nature” of things. As applied to the human social world, the positive method yields a law of successive states through which each branch of knowledge must first pass through the theological, then metaphysical, and finally positive or scientific state. Since the character of society flows from the intellectual forms which predominate in it, this gives Comte a law of the development of human society itself.

iii. Positivism deifies observation and classification of data: Positivism is purely an intellectual way of looking at the world. He believed that the mind should concentrate on the observation and classification of phenomena. He believed that both theological and metaphysical were likely to be fiction as truth, and that there is no way of determining which is the cause. Thus, it would be more profitable if a person would direct his thoughts to the lines of thinking which are most truly prolific, namely to observation and classification of data.

Positivism brought a revolution or renaissance in the field of social science. It combined belief in progress and a passion for serving humanity. It is based on the belief that a scientific analysis of history would show the way to cure for the ills of society as a weapon against the negative philosophy which was prevalent how things are in reality.

The basic principles of positivism

1. The logic of inquiry is the same across all sciences (both social and natural).

2. The goal of inquiry is to explain and predict, and thereby to discover necessary and sufficient conditions for any phenomenon.

3. Research should be empirically observable with human senses and should use inductive logic to develop statements that can be tested.

4. Science is not the same as common sense, and researchers must be careful not to let common sense bias their research.

5. Science should be judged by logic and should be as value-free as possible. The ultimate goal of science is to produce knowledge, regardless of politics, morals, values, etc.

6. Valid information is only derived from observed phenomena.

7. In atomism a concept or study can be simplified by breaking it down into smaller fragments or parts.

Positivism is closely connected to Naturalism, Reductionism and Verificationism, and it is very similar in its outlook to Scientism. Later, in the early 20th Century, it gave rise to the stricter and more radical doctrine of Logical Positivism. Positivism is opposed to the Constructivist belief that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists, and therefore not discovered from the world through strict scientific method.

In what way ‘rationalism’ and ‘empiricism’ predominate in positivist approach

Positivism, as a philosophical and methodological approach, incorporates elements of both rationalism and empiricism. Here’s how rationalism and empiricism predominate in the positivist approach:

1. Empiricism in Positivism:

a. Positivism, rooted in empiricism, asserts that observations and sensory experiences are paramount for acquiring knowledge. It prioritizes empirical verification as a basis for meaningful claims.

b. The positivist approach aligns with empiricism by emphasizing the scientific method. It involves systematic and empirical observation, with the collection of data through direct observation and experiments.

c. Logical positivists like Rudolf Carnap define empiricism in positivism as the reduction of terms and sentences to those describing immediate data of experience. Verification of statements through observation is central to empiricist epistemologies.

d. Empiricist epistemologies in positivism seek intersubjectivity, emphasizing simple observations that multiple observers can agree upon. Objectivity is crucial, with the assumption that sensations and experiences are independent of theories and perspectives.

2. Rationalism in Positivism:

a. Positivism incorporates rationalism in theory development. Logical reasoning is employed to deduce hypotheses and formulate theories that can be tested empirically, representing a ‘top-down’ approach to analysis.

b. Rationalism in positivism draws inspiration from the rationalist tradition, exemplified by geometry. The belief that a priori knowledge and concepts play a crucial role is evident, reminiscent of the rationalist approach in which sense perceptions are secondary to conceptual frameworks.

c. Karl Popper’s ‘critical rationalism’ challenges inductive methods, advocating for hypotheses to be formulated boldly and subjected to strong tests for falsification. This approach involves deducing logical implications and testing them empirically.

d. Popper introduces the importance of principal falsifiability, aligning with rationalism. Researchers are encouraged to state hypotheses clearly, deduce their empirical consequences, and subject them to rigorous empirical testing.

3. Positivism Overview:

a. Positivism, as a scientific philosophy, originated from movements in the nineteenth-century social science and early twentieth-century philosophy. It emphasizes that philosophy should be scientific and rejects metaphysical speculations.

b.  Positivism contends that there is a universal and a priori scientific method applicable to both natural and social sciences. It supports the reduction of various sciences to physics and asserts that good science must be translatable into statements about observations.

c. Positivism in the social sciences often emphasizes quantitative data and precisely formulated theories. However, criticisms have questioned the a priori and universal nature of scientific methods and the translatability of theories into observational terms.

The positivist approach integrates empiricism through its reliance on observation, verification, and objectivity, while rationalism is evident in logical deduction, theory formation, and the influence of a priori knowledge. The balance between empirical testing and logical reasoning characterizes how rationalism and empiricism predominate in the positivist approach.

Salient features of positivism

The salient features of positivism can be characterized as follows:

1. All Scientific knowledge must be based on direct experience of a reality or direct observation is the surest way to acquire scientific knowledge.

2. The direct experience of a reality could be understood by La certitute, i.e., the unity of scientific method. This implies that the different branches of study are distinguished by their object of study not by their method.

3. The concept of unity of scientific method requires La precise, i.e., a common scientific goal of formulating testable theories. It also implies that there are no value judgements in scientific enquiry.

4. The positivist view science as containing the principle of La utilize i.e., all scientific knowledge must serve some useful purpose. It should be used as a tool for social engineering.

5. Positive knowledge is La relative, which means that scientific knowledge is unfinished because there is no absolute knowledge in science. Lastly, science gives prediction and from prediction comes action

6. Science is the only valid knowledge.

7. Fact is the object of knowledge.

8. Philosophy does not possess a method different from science.

9. The task of philosophy is to find the general principles common to all sciences and to use these principles as guides to human conduct and as the basis of social organization.

10. Positivism denies intuition, prior reasoning, theological and metaphysical knowledge.

Epistemologically, the term “positive” indicates an objective approach to understanding humanity while employing methods inherent in the natural sciences. Comte perceived the scientific method as a replacement for Metaphysics and propounded the law of three stages which saw society as going through three distinct stages in search for truth. These steps are the theological, metaphysical, and the positive.

Criticism of Comte

Comte claimed to be the father of positivism or scientific approach; he himself was not committed to it. Some of the criticisms of positivism are mentioned below:

1. Positivism is not influential at present: Positivism in contemporary sociology encourages a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed.

According to Rollin Chambliss, Comte wanted to build a science of social phenomena. But instead of doing that he struggled to provide his projects of social reorganisation. He built a Utopia instead of science.

2. Methodological Gulf between the physical and social sciences: Criticisms of positivism commonly focus on the inappropriateness of natural-scientific methods in the human or social sciences. Consciousness, cultural norms, symbolic meaning, and intentionality, etc., are variously held to be distinctive human attributes which dictate a methodology gulf between natural science and the study of human social life.

As Prof Timasheff opines, Comte’s sociological theories represent a premature jump from the level of observation and inferences to the level of theory.

3. Problem of verification Methodologically, a central problem of positivism arises from the so-called ‘problem of empiricism’, the lack of any conclusive basis for ‘verification’ in ‘inductive logic’. A further telling criticism the so called ‘paradox of positivism’ is that the verification principle is itself unverifiable.

Auguste Comte gave maximum importance to the scientific method. In spite of criticisms, his insistence on positive approach, objectivity and scientific attitude contributed to the progress of social sciences in general.