Functionalism

Functionalism

The word ‘function’ (from Latin, fungi, functio, to effect, perform, execute) means ‘to perform’ or ‘to serve’ (a purpose). As a distinct approach, as a way of looking at and analysing society, functionalism emerged first in social anthropology in early twentieth century, and later in sociology, beginning in the 1930s.  Functionalism is a sociological perspective that views society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is functional for the stability of the whole society. The different parts are primarily the institutions of society, each of which is organized to fill different needs and each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society. The parts all depend on each other. According to Bredemeir, the functional approach to sociology consists basically of an attempt to understand social phenomena in terms of their relationship to some system.

Concept of Functionalism

Functionalism is the sociological theory which holds that each part of society is necessary for the functioning of the social organism. Structural functionalism, or basically functionalism, is a skeleton for building hypothesis that sees society as an issue framework whose parts cooperate to promote solidarity and strength. Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim have been concerned with the quest for capacities that establishments may have in the public arena. Besides that, a functionalist humanist R. Merton has received an idea of brokenness - this alludes to the impacts of any foundation which cheapens the preservation of society. The functionalist perspective attempts to explain social institutions as collective means to meet individual and social needs. This are –

1. In the functionalist perspective, societies are thought to function like organisms, with various social institutions working together like organs to maintain and reproduce societies.

2. According to functionalist theories, institutions come about and persist because they play a function in society, promoting stability and integration.

3. Functionalism has been criticized for its failure to account for social change and individual agency; some consider it conservatively biased.

4. Functionalism has been criticized for attributing human-like needs to society.

5. Emile Durkheim’s work is considered the foundation of functionalist theory in sociology.

Propositions of Functionalism

Functionalism, as a sociological perspective, is characterized by several propositions:

1. Functional analysis involves the prior conceptualization of a system and a definite emphasis on the primacy of the system over elements. In the words of Abrahamson, ‘Functionalism requires the prior conceptualization of a system before its “explanatory imagery” makes any sense.’ On the other hand, Martindale considers the organic system to be the fundamental explanatory model of functionalism. To the functionalists, a system is more than the sum of its parts, it is also the relationships among its parts; their primary interest is in the contribution of the elements to the maintenance of the system (or its disintegration).

2. The elements of the system are functionally inter-related. Society, like an organism, is perceived as a system of functionally interrelated components each of which, like an organ, performs a function essential for the survival of the system. The normal operation of one element, then, requires the normal operation of other elements.

3. Every element of the system has a function which contributes positively to the continued operation of that system or, negatively, toward its disintegration and change. The central focus of functionalism is the analysis of such contributions which are called eufunctions (positive), dysfunctions (negative) or ‘survival’ that is, an element which makes no contribution at all or has outlived its purpose. Thus, religion is supposed to relieve the tension in a social group, incest taboo is supposed to regulate sexual access and avoid jealousy and confusion of status, and the prison system is to enforce social control.

4. Every system is a well integrated configuration of elements that constitute an organic whole. In the words of Parsons, ‘functionally specialized or differentiated sectors of living systems stand in some kind of an order of cybemetically hierarchical control relative to each other. This is quite a fundamental principle of ordering such systems and, as such, is an enormous aid to the solution of a wide variety of theoretical problems.’ For example, conventional wisdom in early anthropological analysis has portrayed traditional societies as coherent, harmoniously interwoven cultural systems with greater internal consistency, uniformity and homogeneity. Although modem societies are complex, rather than homogeneous, and characterized by greater structural differentiation, they are still regarded as systems with interdependent parts.

5. Parsons and his associates, in their functionalist approach, conceptualize society as a self-regulating system, akin to the principle of homeostasis. This perspective sees society as persistently maintaining relative stability through mechanisms that automatically adjust to environmental changes. The evolution of this thought unfolds in three stages.

i. Stable System of Interaction: In the initial stage, functionalists perceive society as a stable system with enduring patterns of interaction and structured relationships. The focus is on concepts like order, stability, structure, integration, and persistence.

ii. Introduction of Homeostasis: To address challenges in interpretation, functionalists transition to a mechanistic or causal analysis inspired by the physical sciences. They introduce the principle of homeostasis, asserting that society, like an organism, restores equilibrium automatically after temporary disturbances.

iii. Dynamic Equilibrium: Responding to criticisms, functionalists introduce the concept of dynamic equilibrium. This means that while change is possible, social systems tend toward stability and inertia. Adjustive responses to external changes aim to minimize the overall impact within the system, maintaining a new balance and equilibrium.

6. The functioning of a social system depends on consensus of its members on common goals and values related to the basic needs of the society. Parsons views the entire social system as resting heavily upon shared values. The consensual requirements of a social system are central to Parsonian functionalism. Parsons views that order and stability are made possible because individuals internalize the norms of society and conform to this.

7. There are certain functional requisites must be met if a system is to survive. The functional requisite may be defined as a generalized condition necessary for the maintenance of a system or a specific unit thereof. The best-known attempt to formulate the functional pre-requisites is by Aberle and his associates, who have presented a long list of positive and negative conditions. The four negative conditions any one of which is sufficient to bring a collapse of social systems, are:

i. The biological extinction or dispersion of members

ii. Apathy of the members, i.e. the cessation of individual motiva­tion

iii. The war of all against all

iv. The absorption of the society into another society.

Criticism

Functionalism faces criticism for being speculative and conservative for several reasons:

1. Teleological Nature: Functionalism has been accused of being teleological, meaning it explains things in terms of their supposed end or purpose rather than their origins. Critics argue that functionalists might attribute functions to social institutions after they have already been established, creating a reverse order of cause and effect.

2. Conservatism and Lack of Change Emphasis: Critics contend that functionalism, particularly exemplified by Talcott Parsons, tends to emphasize social order, stability, and equilibrium, reflecting a conservative bias. The theory may not adequately address social change, conflicts, or structural disagreements. The focus on maintaining social order can be seen as overlooking the potential for fundamental societal transformations.

3. Neglect of Inequalities and Conflicts: Functionalism has been criticized for neglecting issues of social inequalities based on factors such as race, gender, and class. It is accused of overlooking conflicts and tensions within society, as its focus on integration and consensus may downplay the existence of structural disagreements.

4. Limited Agency Perspective: Critics argue that functionalism lacks a robust sense of agency, portraying individuals as passive entities conforming to predetermined roles. While some argue that more sophisticated forms of functionalism acknowledge individual agency, the theory may not sufficiently explain why individuals choose to accept or reject societal norms.

5. Neglect of Social Change and Evolution: Some critics assert that functionalism, particularly in its earlier forms, is static and lacks a comprehensive understanding of social change. The theory may not adequately capture the dynamic nature of society and the mechanisms underlying social evolution.

6. Gender Biases and Feminist Critique: Feminist perspectives criticize functionalism for neglecting the suppression of women within family structures. While some functionalists, like Parsons, acknowledged tensions in family dynamics, they may have oversimplified the role of women and focused more on the positive functions of the family for society.

7. Epistemological Critique: Postmodernist critiques challenge the objectivity of grand theories like functionalism. The skepticism towards claims of objectivity questions the theory’s ability to provide an all-encompassing understanding of society.

Functionalism is criticized for its perceived tendency to speculate about societal functions, its conservative orientation, and its limitations in addressing social change, conflicts, and inequalities. The teleological nature of attributing functions after the fact and the focus on maintaining social order have contributed to these criticisms.