OBSERVATION

Observation

Observation is the basic method of obtaining information about the world around us and is one of the most basic data collection methods. Observation involves ‘seeing’ things such as objects, processes, relationships and events and formally recording and analysing what is seen. All observation, however, is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool for the researchers to the extent that it serves a formulated research purpose, is planned systematically, is related to more general theoretical propositions, is recorded systematically and is subjected to check and controls on validity and reliability. 

Mrs. P. V. Young (2014, p. 161), in her book ‘Scientific Social Surveys and Research,' has defined observation as “systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of the seen phenomena.” As per Young’s definition, observation is carried out with the eye, and observation aims to discover significant mutual relations between spontaneously occurring events. 

Moser has also supported the argument of P. V. Young in a partial way. He has given more emphasis on the eye than any other organs like the ear and voice. He has mentioned his argument in his book ‘Survey Methods in Social Investigation,’ “Observation implies the use of eyes rather than that of the ears and the voice.” 

According to Oxford Concise Dictionary, Observation means “accurate watching, knowing of phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or mutual relations.” This meaning of observation highlights two points. Firstly, in observation, an attempt is made to discover casual and other relations between facts of a phenomenon; secondly, the phenomenon is watched realistically and precisely and the facts are written down. 

Observation is the most important and general technique for making new discoveries and conducting research in the field of natural and social sciences. In recording the observed phenomena, the observer specified those that are important to the problem. 

Observations sometimes act scientifically when used by researchers in various research works, but it should be noted that all observations are not scientific in nature.

Definition of Observation

1. According to Lindzey Gardner, has defined as “selection, provocation, recording and encoding of that set of behaviours and settings concerning organism ‘in situ’ (naturalistic setting or familiar surroundings) which are consistent with empirical aims.”

2. According to Moses and Kalton are of the opinion that “observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the ears and the voice.”

3. According to Goode and Hatt, “Science begins with observation and must ultimately return to observation for its final validation.”

Types of Observation

1. Participant observation: In this observation, the observer becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some activity or the other of the group. The observer may play several roles in observation, with varying degrees of participation, as a visitor, an attentive listener, an eager learner, or a participant observer. For example, an anthropologist studied tribal customs by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance. The person who is observed should not be aware of the researcher’s purpose. Then only their behaviour will be ‘natural.’

Participant observation can be known (overt) or unknown (covert).

a. Overt: When the researcher asks permission from a group to mingle, the observation method is known as overt. He does so by revealing his true purpose and real identity to the group with whom he wants to mingle.

b. Covert: When the researcher does not show either his true identity or real meaning to the group he wants to join then the observation is known as covert. He keeps both concealed and takes on a false role and identity to enter and mingle in the group. He generally acts as if he is a genuine member of that group.

2. Non-Participant observation: In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. For example, recording devices are used to examine the details of how people talk and behave together.

3. Direct observation: Direct observation refers to the situation when the observer remains physically present and personally monitors what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer to react to and report subtle aspects of events as they occur. During the act of observation, the observer is free to change the focus of observation, concentrate on unexpected events, or even change the place of observation if the situation demands. For example, the observer is physically present to monitor.

3. Indirect Observation: Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, videotape, cameras, or other electronic means. For example, a special camera may be set in a department store to study customers’ or employees’ movements. A camera may also be mounted in a passenger train or plane to determine passenger’s comfort by observing how passengers sit and move in their seats. Such observation can also be conducted in planning traffic control and redesigning peripheral streets.

4. Controlled observation: Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for inferring causality and testing causal hypotheses.

5. Uncontrolled observation: This does not involve over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one.

Advantages of Observation

1. Simplest Method:  Observation is probably the most common and simplest data collection method. It does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods. Everybody in this world observes many things in their daily life. A little training can make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.

2. Useful for Framing Hypothesis: Observation is a main basis for formulating a hypothesis. By continuously observing a phenomenon, the researcher may get acquainted with the observed. He learned about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perceptions, different activities and so many other things. All these help him a lot in forming a hypothesis about them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.

3. Greater Accuracy: In other methods like interviews, questionnaires etc., the researcher has to depend on the information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by them. But in observation, the observer can directly check the accuracy from the observed. He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So, very often, the data collected through observation is more reliable than those collected through interviews or questionnaires.

4. Universal Method: Observation is a common method used in all physical or social sciences. So it has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and accepted.

5. Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases: Observation can deal with phenomena that are incapable of giving verbal information about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply because they cannot speak, e.g., infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who can neither understand the quarries of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of animals, observation is the only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, serious cases of abnormality or mad persons, non-cooperative persons, too shy persons and persons who do not understand the language of the researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.

6. Independent of People’s Willingness to Report: Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various information about them. Often, some respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider. Some people do not have the time or required skills to provide important information to the researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such problems, relatively speaking, it still requires less active co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is never possible without the knowledge of the respondents.

Disadvantages of Observation

1. Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation: Many personal behaviours or secret activities are not open for observation. For example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual activities. In most cases, people do not allow outsiders to study their activities.

2. Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand: Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine their time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the other hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For example, quarrels and fights between two individuals or groups are never certain. Nobody knows when such an event will take place.

3. Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study: Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, the love, affection, feeling and emotions of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also cannot be quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ other methods like a case study, interviews, etc. to study such phenomena.

4. Lack of Reliability: Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments, generalizations made by the observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of the social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty in making valid generalizations in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments to check the phenomenon's accuracy.

5. Faulty Perception: Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently. One person may find something meaningful and useful from a situation, but the other may find nothing from it. Only those observers who have technical knowledge about the observation can make scientific observations.

6. Personal Bias of the Observer: Personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates obstacles for making valid generalizations. The observer may have his own ideas of right and wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the objectivity in social research.

7. Slow Investigation: Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period through observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed to continue their observation process.

8. Expensive: Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort. Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing sophisticated equipment. Because of this, it is called one of the most expensive methods of data collection.

9. Inadequate Method: According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone.” Therefore, many suggested that observation must also be supplemented by other methods.

10. Difficulty in Checking Validity: Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and do not help in drawing a valid generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper the validity and reliability of observation.

Differentiate between participant observation and non-participant observation

Participant observation and non-participant observation are two distinct research methods used in social sciences to gather data and insights through systematic observation. Here’s a breakdown of their differences:

1. Role of the Observer:

a. Participant Observation: The observer actively participates in the social setting being studied, taking on a role within the group or community.

b. Non-Participant Observation: The observer remains outside the social setting and does not actively engage in the activities or interactions being studied.

2. Level of Involvement:

a. Participant Observation: High level of involvement, as the observer becomes part of the group, participating in activities and interactions.

b. Non-Participant Observation: Low level of involvement, as the observer remains detached without direct participation.

3. Observer’s Influence:

a. Participant Observation: The presence and actions of the observer may influence the dynamics of the group due to active participation.

b. Non-Participant Observation: The observer’s impact on the group is minimized since they remain an external, non-participating observer.

4. Access to Information:

a. Participant Observation: Provides a deeper understanding of the group’s internal dynamics and allows for access to insider perspectives.

b. Non-Participant Observation: May have a more objective view of the group’s activities but may lack in-depth insights into the subjective experiences of group members.

5. Naturalness of Setting:

a. Participant Observation: The setting may appear more natural as the observer is integrated into the group, reducing the chances of altering behaviour.

b. Non-Participant Observation: The setting may be more natural for the group, as the observer remains external and less likely to impact group dynamics.

6. Ethical Considerations:

a. Participant Observation: Raises ethical concerns related to the observer’s dual role and potential conflicts between participant and observer roles.

b. Non-Participant Observation: Generally considered less ethically complex, as the observer maintains a more objective and distant stance.

7. Data Collection Methods:

a. Participant Observation: Involves a combination of participant engagement and note-taking, often using subjective experiences to inform data.

b. Non-Participant Observation: Primarily relies on systematic observation and recording of behaviours without active involvement in the group’s activities.

Both participant observation and non-participant observation have their strengths and weaknesses. The choice between the two methods depends on the research objectives, the nature of the phenomenon being studied, ethical considerations, and the researcher’s role and relationship with the participants. Researchers should carefully consider the appropriateness of each method based on their specific research questions and context.

The role of observation method as a tool of data collection

The observation method is a crucial tool for collecting data, employing commonly used techniques. Its role of observation-embedded information is explored in detail below:

1. Direct and Authentic Insight: Observation allows researchers to directly witness and document real-life behaviors and events, ensuring authenticity and minimizing reliance on participants’ recall.

2. Documentation Techniques: Common techniques such as logs and field notes serve as documentation tools. Logs focus on daily occurrences, while field notes provide a more analytical and interpretive perspective, capturing the broader context of observed phenomena.

3. Categorization of Field Notes: Researchers categorize their field notes into different types, including observational, methodological, theoretical, and personal notes, each serving a specific purpose in the data collection process.

4. Observational Notes: These notes offer a detailed account of the researcher's observations. They are a primary record of the behaviours, interactions, and events unfolding in the natural setting.

5. Methodological Notes: Researchers include methodological notes to document the strategies employed during observations and outline potential approaches for future observations. This contributes to the refinement of observation techniques over time.

6. Personal Notes: Personal notes provide a unique dimension by capturing the researcher’s own feelings and reflections during the research process. This introspective element adds depth to the interpretation of collected data.

7. Theoretical Notes: Theoretical notes involve interpretative efforts to assign meaning to observations. Researchers reflect on the significance of observed patterns and behaviours, contributing to developing theoretical frameworks.

8. Utilization of Senses: The observation method encourages researchers to engage all their senses in gathering information about the studied phenomena. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the context and nuances.

9. Diverse Material Utilization: Researchers can utilize various materials to enhance sensory observations. Audio-recorders facilitate the taping of interviews, while video-recorders or cameras document activities. Additional materials like meeting minutes, memoranda, letters, magazines, newspaper articles, and maps contribute to a multifaceted understanding of the study group.

10. Contextual Enrichment: By immersing themselves in the natural setting, researchers gain a contextual understanding that goes beyond isolated data points. This contextual richness enhances the overall quality and depth of the collected data.

11. Dynamic and Adaptive: The observation method is dynamic and adaptive, allowing researchers to adjust their focus, refine their techniques, and explore emerging patterns. This adaptability contributes to the flexibility of the research process.

Through its diverse techniques and categorization, the observation method empowers researchers to explore, interpret, and understand the complexities of human behaviour and social phenomena in their natural environment.