Observation:
Observation is the basic method of obtaining information about the world around us and is one of the most basic data collection methods. Observation involves ‘seeing’ things such as objects, processes, relationships and events and formally recording and analysing what is seen. All observation, however, is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool for the researchers to the extent that it serves a formulated research purpose, is planned systematically, is related to more general theoretical propositions, is recorded systematically and is subjected to check and controls on validity and reliability.
Mrs. P. V. Young, in her book ‘Scientific Social Surveys and Research’, has defined observation as “Observation is a systematic and deliberate study through the eye of spontaneous occurrences at the time they occur”. As per Young's definition, observation is carried out with the eye, and the purpose and aim of observation are to discover significant mutual relations between spontaneously occurring events.
Moser has also supported the argument of Mrs. P. V. Young in a partial way. He has given more emphasis on the eye than any other organs like the ear and voice. He has mentioned his argument in his book 'Survey Methods in Social Investigation', “Observation implies the use of eyes rather than that of the ears and the voice.”
According to Oxford Concise Dictionary, Observation means, “accurate watching, knowing of phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or mutual relations.” This meaning of observation highlights two points. Firstly, in observation an attempt is made to discover casual and other relations between facts of a phenomenon; secondly, the phenomenon is watched realistically and precisely and the facts are written down.
Observation is the most important and general technique of making new discoveries and conducting researches in the field of natural and social sciences. In recording the observed phenomena, the observer specified those which has importance in the problem.
Observations sometimes act scientifically, when used by the researchers in various research works but it should be noted that all observations are not scientific in nature.
Types of Observation:
Participant observation: In this observation, the observer becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some activity or the other of the group. The observer may play any one of the several roles in observation, with varying degrees of participation, as a visitor, an attentive listener, an eager learner, or as a participant observer. For example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities like a folk dance. The person who is observed should not be aware of the researcher’s purpose. Then only their behaviour will be ‘natural.’
Participant observation can be known (overt) or unknown (covert).
Overt: When the researcher asks permission from a group to mingle the observation method is known as overt. He does so by revealing his true purpose and real identity to the group with whom he wants to mingle.
Covert: When the researcher does not show either his true identity or real meaning to the group he wants to join then the observation is known as covert. He keeps both concealed and takes on a false role and identity to enter and mingle in the group. He generally acts as if he is a genuine member of that group.
Non-Participant observation: In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. For example, the use of recording devices to examine the details of how people talk and behave together.
Direct observation: Direct observation refers to the situation when the observer remains physically present and personally monitors what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer to react to and report subtle aspects of events as they occur. During the act of observation, the observer is free to change the focus of observation, concentrate on unexpected events, or even change the place of observation if the situation demands. For example, the observer is physically present to monitor.
Indirect Observation: Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, videotape, cameras, or other electronic means. For example, a special camera may be set in a department store to study customers’ or employees’ movements. A camera may also be mounted in a passenger train or plane to determine passenger’s comfort by observing how passengers sit and move in their seats. Such observation can also be conducted in planning traffic control and redesigning peripheral streets.
Controlled observation: Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for inferring causality, and testing causal hypotheses.
Uncontrolled observation: This does not involve over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION:
Simplest Method: Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods. Everybody in this world observes many things in their daily life. A little training can make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.
Useful for Framing Hypothesis: Observation is one of the main bases of formulating a hypothesis. By observing a phenomenon continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed. He came to know about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perceptions, different activities and so many other things. All these help him a lot to form a hypothesis on them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.
Greater Accuracy: In other methods like interviews, questionnaires etc., the researcher has to depend on the information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by them. But in observation, the observer can directly check the accuracy from the observed. He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So very often the data collected through observation is more reliable than those collected through interviews or questionnaires.
Universal Method: Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social. So it has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and accepted.
Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases: Observation can deal with phenomena that are not capable of giving verbal information about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the reason that they cannot speak e.g. infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who can neither understand the quarries of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of animals observation is the only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons, for non-cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand the language of the researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.
Independent of People’s Willingness to Report: Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various information about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider. Some people do not have the time or required skills to provide important information to the researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such problems, still relatively speaking it requires less active co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is never possible without the knowledge of the respondents.
DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION:
Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation: There are many personal behaviours or secret activities which are not open for observation. For example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual activities. In most cases, people do not allow an outsider to study their activities.
Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand: Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine their time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the other hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For example, the quarrel and fight between two individuals or groups are never certain. Nobody knows when such an event will take place.
Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study: Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, the love, affection, feeling and emotion of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also cannot be quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ other methods like a case study; interviews etc. to study such phenomena.
Lack of Reliability: Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments, generalizations made by the observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of the social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for making valid generalizations in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation, no attempt is made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the phenomenon.
Faulty Perception: Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently. One person may find something meaningful and useful from a situation but the other may find nothing from it. Only those observers who are having technical knowledge about the observation can make scientific observations.
Personal Bias of the Observer: Personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates obstacles for making valid generalizations. The observer may have his own ideas of right and wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the objectivity in social research.
Slow Investigation: Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period through observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed to continue their observation process.
Expensive: Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort. Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing sophisticated equipment’s. Because of this, it is called one of the most expensive methods of data collection.
Inadequate Method: According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone”. Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods also.
Difficulty in Checking Validity: Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and do not help in drawing a valid generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper the validity and reliability of observation.
